PALESTINE
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PALESTINE UNDER THE
MOSLEMS.,,^.-,
H Description of Ssria ant) tbe 1bol Olanfc
FROM A.D. 650 TO 1500.
TRANSLATED FROM THE WORKS OF
THE MEDIEVAL ARAB GEOGRAPHERS
BY
G U Y LE STRANGE.
WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
PUBLISHED FOR THE
COMMITTEE OF THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND
BY
ALEXANDER P. WATT,
2, PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
1890.
BY
pRES'cRVATlOH
SERVICES
DATE..
TO
Jlobelist,
AND FOR MANY YEARS SECRETARY TO THE PALESTINE
EXPLORATION FUND,
THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED,
IN TOKEN OF FRIENDSHIP AND ESTEEM, AND IN APPRECIATION
OF THE IMPORTANT WORK DONE BY HIM IN
FORWARDING THE EXPLORATION OF
THE HOLY LAND.
05-
c
PREFACE.
IT is the object of the present work to translate and thus render
available the mass of interesting information about Palestine
which lies buried in the Arabic texts of the Moslem geographers
and travellers of the Middle Ages. The materials, both printed
and manuscript, are ample, as will be seen from the list of authori-
ties set forth in the Introduction ; hardly any attempt, however, has
hitherto been made to render the contents of these Arabic texts
available to the English reader. Some few of the works I quote
have, it is true, been translated either in whole or in part, into
Latin, French, or German ; but as far as I am aware, no Orientalist
has as yet undertaken to translate, systematize, and bring into
comparison and chronological order, all the various accounts given
by the Arab geographers of the cities, Holy Places, and districts of
Palestine and Syria.
These provinces of the Byzantine Empire were conquered by
the Arab hordes within a few years of the death of Muhammad
and, except for the interruption caused by the occupation of the
Holy Land by the Crusaders, the country has remained under the
rule of the Moslems down to the present day. Before the close
of the third century after the Flight corresponding with the ninth
of the Christian era the science of geography had already begun
to be studied among the learned of Islam. The science, besides
being theoretically expounded in their schools, was practically
treated of in the numerous Arab " Road Books," since the pilgrim-
age to Mecca made every Moslem perforce a traveller once at
least during the course of his life. To the diaries of some of these
viii PREFACE.
pilgrims, whether coming from the western lands of Spain, or
the further east of Persia and beyond who visited Syria and
Jerusalem on the journey to or from the Hijjaz we owe the
detailed and graphic descriptions of the Holy City and Damascus,
and the Province of Syria, during the Middle Ages, which occur
in the travels of such men as Nasir-i-Khusrau the Persian, Ibn
Jubair the Spaniard, and Ibn Batutah the Berber.
It may be useful briefly to indicate the method I have adopted
in carrying through my work. In dealing with the Arab writers,
I have been careful to give in all cases an exact reference
to the text from which the translation has been made, in order
that those who might question my rendering should be able
without loss of time to refer to the original. I may be allowed to
point out that all the information contained in the present volume
has been obtained at first hand, for though I have been careful
to consult the works of other Orientalists who have translated
some of the texts I quote, the translations now published I have
in every case made myself from the Arabic or Persian originals.
In dealing with disputed points relating to the position of the
Holy Places in Jerusalem, I have briefly stated the conclusions
which I thought were to be deduced from the accounts given by
the Moslem writers of the foundation and history of the various
edifices. Theories in respect to the position of the Holy Places,
however, form but a minor portion of my work, which has been
to translate in full, and, where needful, annotate, the texts I had
before me. I am in hopes that others may be able to build with
the bricks I have thus fashioned, and again that from other
printed texts and MSS., similar to those from which my materials
have been drawn, other workers will bring to light further in-
formation that will correct and enlarge what has been gathered
together in these pages.
Four years have now elapsed since I began my work with the
translation of Mukaddasi, during an autumn and winter spent at
Haifa, under Mount Carmel, in Palestine. The result of four
years' labour is perhaps scanty. Those, however, who have ex-
perience of the labour of searching and collating Arabic MSS.
or even the work with printed texts as the basis for translation
PREFACE. ix
will bear me witness that the task is long, and the search often
to be repeated before any satisfactory result is obtained. It is
impossible to skim an Arabic book, and with every care the eye
tires, and, passing over, often fails to note at the first reading the
passage that is sought for.
In bringing my labours to a conclusion, I have many to thank
for aid afforded me in collecting and annotating the materials
which form the groundwork of the present volume. In the first
place, I am under a debt of gratitude for the courtesy and liberality
with which the librarians of the great public libraries of Paris,
Munich, London, and Oxford, have answered my demands for
access to the treasures in their charge.
The regulations of the foreign libraries are more liberal in
the matter of loan than is the case at present with us at the
British Museum and at the Bodleian. Under the guarantee
of a letter of introduction, given me by the late Lord Lyons,
at the time our Ambassador at Paris, M. Delisle, director of
the Bibliotheque National?, allowed me to borrow and keep
at my own house during many months, for the purposes of
copying and collating, a number of Arabic MSS. belonging to
the Paris Library, which I needed for my work on Suyuti.
M. Schefer, the well-known Orientalist, who is at the head of the
Ecole des Langues Orientates Vivantes at Paris, also allowed me to
carry away on loan, and keep during the greater part of the winter
of 1886-87, a number of printed books from the library of the
Ecole, some of which I should with extreme difficulty have other-
wise procured, since many of the texts I required are already out
Of print. To both these gentlemen my heartiest thanks are due.
I \ieed hardly point out how great was the boon they conferred on
me\ in thus allowing me to carry away books and MSS. for perusal
in tr.e quiet of my own study ; in so doing sparing me the labour
of copying and collating the texts amid the interruptions and the
incessant coming and going unavoidable in the reading-room of a
great public library.
As regards the Royal Library at Munich, too, I am deeply
indebted to the courtesy of Dr. Laubmann, the director, and his
assistants. On two occasions, during the vacation, when the
x PREFACE.
library is closed to the general public, an exception was made in
my favour though I came as a perfect stranger to these gentle-
men and free access was granted me to search and use the
magnificent collection of Oriental manuscripts and printed books
that is found here.
In regard to the British Museum and the Bodleian, I can only
express my acknowledgments to the various curators and officials
of these two national libraries, for the facilities afforded me in
there consulting books which the illiberal regulations of these
establishments render unavailable to students outside the walls of
their respective reading-rooms.
To friends and critics of my former publications I am indebted
for corrections, emendations, and many valuable hints. In the
first place, I have to thank Professor de Goeje, of Leiden, for the
trouble to which he put himself in sending me a long letter filled
with friendly criticism of my translation of Mukaddasi's Description
of Palestine and Syria. To the contents of his letter is largely
due the revision I have made in the present translation. Colonel
Sir Charles Wilson and Major Conder, R.E., have both most
generously given me many learned and useful notes on Mukaddasi,
Nasir-i-Khusrau, and Suyuti ; and the former I have further to
thank for his paper on the "Gates of the Noble Sanctuary at
Jerusalem," of which I have made a liberal use. Lastly, though
his name appears but rarely in my notes, I owe a debt of
gratitude to Professor Hayter-Lewis for his book on the Holy
Places of Jerusalem^ which I have found invaluable at many
points of my present work. His practical knowledge of archi-
tecture and the personal inspection he has given to the buildings
and sites under discussion, together with the fact that Professor
Hayter-Lewis has no pet theory to support, render his criticisms
and conclusions of the highest possible value.
A few words must be added on the system of transliteration of
Arabic names employed throughout the following pages. In this
I have made no attempt, by the use of letters with points or bars
beneath, to attain absolute accuracy, and many inconsistencies will
doubtless be discovered by my critics. Nearly all the Arabic place-
names, however, will be found printed in Arabic letters in the
PREFACE. xi
index, and this I deemed was necessary and useful for purposes
of etymology ; while, at the same time, it has dispensed with the
use of dotted-letters in my text, or the adoption of a complicated
system of transliteration.
In regard to dates, unless specially noted to the contrary, the
years are given according to the Christian era. In the translations
and elsewhere it has often been necessary to give the year accord-
ing to the era of the Hijrah, and the corresponding year A.D. has
then been added in brackets. It need hardly be pointed out that
when two dates occur side by side e.g., 691 (72) the higher
figure is the year A.D., the lower the year A.H.
In the second part of my work, which contains in alphabetical
order the translation of all the notices I have been able to find in
the Arab geographers of the towns, villages, and other places
throughout the Province of Syria and Palestine, I have thought it
well to add the distances in "miles," or " marches," "stages,"
and " days," which the various authorities give, as lying between
neighbouring points These distances will in some cases fix
doubtful positions, and in others will serve to mark the lines of
communication and the high-roads of commerce in use during the
Middle Ages, and in the era of the Crusades.
With so many dates, so many foreign names, and such a multi-
tude of references as crowd my pages, though I have done my
best to correct the proofs, many errors must necessarily have
crept in. I shall feel most grateful to any reader who will point
these out to me, and I shall hope, should a second edition be
called for, to profit by the criticisms and corrections of those who
may find occasion to consult these pages.
G. LE S.
22, PIAZZA DELL' INDIPENDENZA,
FLORENCE,
January, 1890.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE . . xix
PART I.
INTRODUCTION. THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS. LIST OF
AUTHORITIES 113
CHAPTER I.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE.
The name Ash Shdm Physical features Climate Products Manners
and customs Festivals The Watch-stations of the coast.
Territorial Divisions: The Junds or Military Districts Jund
Filastin The Tih, or Desert of the Wanderings The Jifar Jund
al Urdunn The Ghaur Jund Dimashk The Ghutah of Damascus,
the Hauran, and Bathaniyyah, Jaulan, Jaidiir, and Hulah The Balka
Ash Sharah Al Jibal Jund Hims Jund Kinnasrin Jund al
'Awasim The Thughiir The Nine " Kingdoms " of Syria.
Tribute and 1 axes Weights and Measures . . . 14 51
CHAPTER II.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE (continued).
Rivers: The Jordan and its tributaries The rivers of the coast The
rivers of Damascus The Orontes Rivers of the northern provinces.
Lakes: The Dead Sea The Lake of Tiberias The Hulah
Damascus Lakes Lakes of Hims and of Afamiyyah Lakes of
Antioch.
Mountains: Sinai Mount Hor The Mount of Olives Mountain-
chains of Palestine : Ebal and Gerizim, Jabal 'Amilah The Jaulan
hills Lebanon mountains Mountains round Damascus Hermon
Jabal al Lukkam ...... 52 82
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
JERUSALEM.
PACK
Names of the Holy City Advantages of Jerusalem Fertility Position
Territory of the Holy City.
The Mosque at Aksa : The Prophet's Night Journey The origin of
the Mosque al Aksa 'Omar's early building and that of 'Abd al
Malik Earthquake of the year 130 (746), and restoration of the
mosque by Al Mansur and Al Mahdi The technical meaning of the
term Masjid, or Mosque Mukaddasi's description of the Aksa in 985
The Talisman and the Maksurahs Earthquakes of 1016 and 1034
Inscriptions relating to repairs Description of the Aksa by Nasir-
i-Khusrau in 1047 Dimensions of the mosque The Crusades
The mosque given over to the Templars Description by Idrisi and
'All of Herat Saladin's reconquest of Jerusalem and restoration of
the Aksa in 1187 Description by Mujir ad Din in 1496 Modern
mosque.
The Dome of the Rock : The Rock The dome built over it by
'Abd al Malik in 691 Mr. Fergusson's theory disproved 'Abd al
Malik's great inscription Al Mamun's inscription on the doors
Description of the dome by Ibn al Fakih in 903 Arrangement of
the piers and pillars Istakhri and Ibn Haukal's description That
of Mukaddasi, 985 The earthquake of 1016 and the inscriptions
recording repairs Nasir-i-Khusrau's visit in 1047 The fall of the
great lantern in 1060 The Crusaders and the Templum Domini
Temple-churches and Rafael's picture of the Sposalizio Idrisi's
account in 1154 'Ali of Herat in 1173 ; the iron railing round the
Rock, and other details Pieces of the rock taken by the Crusaders
as relics Saladin's restoration His great inscription in the Dome
Ibn Batutah's visit in 1355 Destruction of the Cupola by fire in
1448 Suyuti's description of the Footprint of the Prophet, the Cave,
and other marvels Mujir ad Din's measurements . . 83137
CHAPTER IV.
JERUSALEM (continued}.
Traditional Accounts : 'Omar's finding of the Rock The Service insti-
tuted by the Khalif 'Abd al Malik.
The Dome of the Chain : Minor domes The platform and stair-
waysThe Court and the Haram Area The Cradle of Jesus and
Stables of Solomon Minor buildings Minarets . . 138172
TABLE OF CONTENTS. xv
CFi AFTER V.
JERUSALEM (continued).
PAGE
The Gates of the Haram Area The Colonnades Size of the Haram
Area The Tanks and Pools.
The Church of the Resurrection : The Miracle of the Holy Fire
The Garden of Gethsemane The Tomb of the Virgin Pater Noster
Church and Bethany The Church of the Ascension and of the
Jacobites The Church of Sion and Gallicantus.
City Gates: The Castle Wadi Jahannum and the Tomb of
Absalom.
The Plain, As S&hirah : The Pool of Siloam The Well of Job-
Cavern of Korah . . . ..... .. ^^ 173 223
CHAPTER VI.
DAMASCUS.
Description by Mukaddasi in 985 A.D. The Great Mosque Mosaics-
City Gates Other accounts The rivers of Damascus Villages
round the City The Ghautah, or Plain, of Damascus The various
water-courses The Hill of Jesus Ibn Jubair's description of the
City and Mosque in 1184 The ascent of the Great Dome The two
descriptions of the Clepsydra Ibn Batutah's description in 1355
Shrines Suburbs Traditions Burning of the Mosque by
Timur-Leng . . . . .... . 224 273
CHAPTER VII.
LEGENDS AND MARVELS.
Ar Rakim and the Cave of the Sleepers Zttghar (Zoar, Segor), the Cities
of Lot, and the Legend of Lot's daughters^/ Kalt and the Well
of the Leaf Urim and the Ancient Temple 'Ain al Jdrah and
the Menhir Ba'albakk and the Great Stones Bait Lahm (Beth-
lehem) and the Basilica of Constantine An Ndsirah (Nazareth) and
the Wonderful Tree . . . . . . 274302
xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VIII.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS.
PAGE
Ar Ramlah, founded by the Khalif Sulaiman The White Mosque
Hebron: The Tombs of the Patriarchs Visits to the Cave of Mach-
pelah Invention of the Tomb of Joseph. Acre ('Akkah) : Construc-
tion of the Port by Ibn Tulun. Tiberias (Tabariyyah) : The Thermal
Springs and Baths The Tomb of David . . 303 341
CHAPTER IX.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS (continued}.
Tyre (Sur). Sidon (Saida). Tripoli (Tarabulus, or Atrabulus) : The Old
and the New Town The Castles of the Assassins. Hints (Emessa) :
The Talisman against Scorpions. Hamah (Hamath) : The Ancient
Castle. Aleppo (Halab) : Ibn Butlan's Description The Castle.
Antioch (Antakiyyah) : Christian Churches and Convents Descrip-
tion by Ibn Butlan The Great Storm of the Year 1050 A.D.
Tradition of Habib an Najar. Tarsus : The Frontier Fortress, and
the Garrison ....... 342 378
PART II.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PLACES IN PALESTINE AND
SYRIA ... .... 379-556
APPENDIX. Note on the builder of the great Aksa Mosque . . 557
INDEX 559-604
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
THE DOME OF THE ROCK AND THE DOME OF THE
CHAIN . . . ... . Frontispiece
PLAN OF THE MOSQUE OF IBN TULUN, IN OLD CAIRO . 95
PLAN OF THE AKSA MOSQUE, ACCORDING TO THE DESCRIP-
TION OF AL MUKADDASI IN 985 A.D. . to face 99
PLAN OF THE AKSA MOSQUE, ACCORDING TO THE DESCRIP-
TION OF NASIR-I-KHUSRAU IN 1047 A.D. . to face 106
PLAN OF THE AKSA MOSQUE AT THE PRESENT DAY . to face no
VIEW OF THE NORTH FRONT AND PORTICO OF THE AKSA
MOSQUE AT THE PRESENT DAY . to face III
PLAN OF THE DOME OF THE ROCK AND THE DOME OF THE
CHAIN AT THE PRESENT DAY . . . to face 114
PLAN OF THE DOME OF THE ROCK IN THE TIME OF
NASIR-I-KHUSRAU, IN 1047 A.D. . . .126
PLAN OF THE HARAM AREA IN THE TIME OF
NASIR-I-KHUSRAU, 1047 A.D. . . . to face 150
PLAN OF THE HARAM AREA AT THE PRESENT DAY . to face IT 2
ELEVATION OF THE SOUTH WALL OF THE HARAM AREA, AND
OF THE EAST WALL AT THE PRESENT DAY . to face 177
SOUTHERN END OF THE AKSA MOSQUE AND WALL OF
THE HARAM AREA, SHOWING THE REMAINS OF THE
ANCIENT DOUBLE GATE . . . to face 181
b
xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
VIEW OF PASSAGE-WAY UNDER THE AKSA MOSQUE, LEAD-
ING UP FROM THE ANCIENT DOUBLE GATE . to face 182
ANCIENT SINGLE GATE, EXTERIOR OF THE SOUTH WALL
OF THE HARAM AREA. . . . to face 183
ANCIENT TRIPLE GATE, EXTERIOR OF THE SOUTH WALL
OF THE HARAM AREA . . . to face 184
PLAN OF THE GREAT OMAYYAD MOSQUE AT DAMASCUS
AT THE PRESENT DAY .... to face 226
PLAN OF THE SANCTUARY AT HEBRON . . . 313
MAP OF PALESTINE AND SYRIA DURING THE MIDDLE
AGES, ACCORDING TO THE DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ARAB
GEOGRAPHERS ..... to face 14
MAP OF JERUSALEM AND ITS IMMEDIATE ENVIRONS,
985 1052 A.D. . . . . to face 83
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
Dates in brackets refer to the years of the Hijrah.
A.D. 632, June (A.H. n). Death of Muhammad, Abu Bakr Khalh.
634, Aug. (13). 'Omar Khalif.
,, 634, Sept. (13). Greeks defeated on the Yarmuk (Hieromax).
635 (14). Capitulation of Damascus. Defeat of Greeks at
Fihl (Pella). Jordan Province reduced.
636(15). Emessa and Antioch taken. Reduction of Northern
Syria. Defeat of Greeks at Ajnadain. Cities of Pales-
tine from Gaza to Nabulus taken. Capitulation of
Jerusalem.
639 (18). Mu'awiyah Governor of Syria.
644 (24). 'Othman Khalif.
656 (35). 'Ali Khalif.
66 1 (40). Hasan succeeds 'Ali, but abdicates in favour of
Mu'awiyah, first Khalif of the House of Omayyah.
66 1 750. Fourteen Omayyad Khalifs reigning at Damascus,
viz. :
Mu'awiyah I., A.D. 66 1 (41). Yazid I., 680 (60).
Mu'awiyah II., 683 (64). Marwan I., 683 (64). 'Abd
al Malik, 685 (65). Al Walid I,, 705 (86). Sulaiman,
715 (96). 'Omar ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz, 717 (99). Yazid II.,
720 (101). Hisham, 724 (105). Al Walid II., 743 (125).
Yazid III., 744 (126). Ibrahim. Marwan II., 744 (127) ;
defeated and slain A.D. 750 (132).
750 (132). First of the Abbaside Dynasty, As Saffah Khalif,
Baghdad becomes the seat of their Government.
Thirty-seven Khalifs in all, from A.D. 750 to 1258
b2
xx CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
The first fifteen whose sovereignty was acknowledged in
Syria were :
As Saffah A.D. 750 (132). Al Mansur, 754 (136). Al Mahdi,
775 (158). Al Hadi, 785 (169). Ar Rashid, 786 (170).
Al Amin, 809 (193). Al Mamun, 813 (198). Al
Mu'tasim, 833 (218). Al Wathik, 842 (227). Al Muta-
wakkil, 847 (232). Al Muntasir, 861 (247). Al Musta'in,
862 (248). Al Mu'tazz, 866 (251). Al Muhtadi, 869
(255). Al Mu'tamid, 870 (256). From A.D. 892 to
1258 twenty-two Khalifs who, for the most part, were
only acknowledged as the spiritual sovereigns of the
Muslims in Syria.
A.D. 878 (264). Ahmad ibn Tulun, Independent Governor of
Egypt, gains possession of Syria, which remains in the
power of the Tulunide Governors of Egypt, viz. :
Ahmad ibn Tulun, A.D. 868 (254) Khumarawaih, 883 (270).
Jaish Abu-1 'Asakir, 895 (282). Harun, 896 (283), to
A.D. 904 (292).
906 (293). Damascus and other towns of Syria plundered
during the inroad of the Karmathians.
,, 934 969 (323 358). Ikhshidi Princes of Egypt hold
Damascus with Southern Syria and Palestine, viz. :
Muhammad al Ikhshid, A.D. 934 (323). Abu-1 Kasim, 946
(334). '^,960(349). Kafur, 966 (355). Abu-1 Fawaris
Ahmad, 968 (357).
j} 944 1003 (333 394). Hamdani Princes of Aleppo hold the
Districts of Northern Syria, viz. :
Saif ad Daulah, A.D. 944 (333). Sa'ad ad Daulah, 967 (356).
Sa'id ad Daulah, 991 (381).
9 6 9 (35 8 )- A1 Mu'izz, fourth Fatimite Khalif, gains possession
of Egypt, and drives the Ikhshidis out of Southern Syria
and Palestine.
Fourteen Fatimite Khalifs of Egypt, viz. :
Al Mahdi, A.D. 909 (297). Al Kaim, 934 (322). Al Mansur,
945 (334)- Al Mu'izz, 952 (341). Al 'Aziz, 975 (365).
Al Hakim, 996 (386). Adh Dhahir, 1020 (411). Al
Mustansir, 1035 (427). Al Musta'ali, 1094 (487). Al
Amir, 1101 (495). Al Hafiz, 1130 (524). Adh Dhafir,
1149 (544). Al Faiz, 1154 (549)- Ai Adid, 1160 (555).
1070 (463). Alp Arslan, the Saljuk, conquers Aleppo and the
cities of Northern Syria, in the name of the Abbaside
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xxi
Khalif of Baghdad, Al Kaim. Ansuz (or Atsiz), the
Turkoman, conquers Jerusalem, and afterwards Tiberias
and Damascus with their territories, in the name of the
Abbaside Khalifs.
A.D. 1091 (484). ll Ghazi and Sukman, sons of Ortok, Governors
of Jerusalem.
1096 (489). Jerusalem retaken by the Fatimite General of
Al Musta'ali.
1098(491). Antioch and Ma'arrah taken by the Crusaders.
1099, July (492). Jerusalem conquered by Godfrey de Bouillon.
Latin Kings of Jerusalem, viz. :
Godfrey, 1099; Baldwin I., iioo; Baldwin II., 1118; Fulk,
1131 ; Baldwin III., 1144.
1147. Second Crusade; 1148, failure of Siege of Damascus;
1 153, Ascalon taken.
JI 54 (549)- Nur ad Din Zanki, Sultan of Damascus.
1169 (565). Saladin, his Lieutenant in Egypt; 1171 (566),
Saladin proclaims the supremacy of the Abbasides, and
suppresses the Fatimite Khalifate of Egypt.
Latin Kings of Jerusalem (continued) :
Almeric, 1162; Baldwin IV., 1173; Baldwin V., 1186; Guy
de Lusignan, ii86to 1187.
1174 (569). Death of Nur ad Din; Saladin takes possession
of Damascus.
1187, July (583). Defeat of Crusaders at Hattin ; Saladin re-
conquers Jerusalem.
1188 1192. Third Crusade; 1191, Richard Cceur de Lion
and Philippe Auguste reconquer Acre.
IJ 93 (5 8 9)- Death of Saladin ; he is succeeded by his three
sons : Al Afdal, at Damascus ; Al 'Aziz, at Cairo ; Adh
Dhahir, at Aleppo.
1193. Fourth Crusade, loss of Jaffa.
1196 (592). Al Malik al 'Adil, brother of Saladin, becomes
Sultan of Damascus.
1204. Fifth Crusade, Latin Empire of Constantinople.
1218. Sixth Crusade, conquest of Damietta.
1229. Emperor Frederick II. obtains Jerusalem by treaty
from Sultan Kamil of Egypt ; ten years' truce.
xxii CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
A.D. 1240. Seventh Crusade, Richard Earl of Cornwall.
1244. Jerusalem sacked by the Kharizmians.
1245. Eighth Crusade, St. Louis IX. takes Damietta.
1250 (648). Eibek, Mamluk Sultan of Egypt.
From 1250 to 1390 twenty-five Mamluk (Bahrite) sultans of
Egypt, to whom Syria was dependent.
,, 1260 1277 (658-676). Hulagu, grandson of Jengis Khan,
the Mongol, seizes Damascus and Northern Syria. The
Mongols are beaten at 'Am Jalud by Sultan Kutuz, of
Egypt, who regains possession of Syria.
,, 1260(658). Baibars, Sultan of Egypt; 1265, captures
Caesarea, 'Athlith, Haifa and Arsuf ; 1266, takes Safed ;
1268, takes Jaffa, Shakif (Beaufort), and Antioch.
,, 1279 (678). Sultan Kala'un of Egypt. Campaign in Syria,
sack of Tripoli.
,, 1290 (689). Sultan Salah ad Din Khalil captures Acre, Tyre,
Bairut and Sidon.
1390 (792). Sultan Barkuk.
From 1390 to 1516 twenty-four Mamluk (Burjite) sultans of
Egypt, to whom Syria was nominally dependent.
1400 (803) Timur-Leng conquers Hamah, Hims and Ba'al-
bakk ; 1401, takes Damascus and burns the greater part
of the city.
,, 1516 (922). Syria and Egypt conquered by Sultan Selim, of
Constantinople.
ERRATA.
Page 27, line i6,for " Mitelene," read " Melitene."
Page 36, line iQ,for " Al Karashiyyah," read " Al Kurashiyyah."
Page 37, line 36, for " Armoricum," read " Amorium."
Page 56, line 9, before " Khumaruwaih," <& " the. "
Page 81, line 9, for " Jabal al Khalt," read " Jabal al Khait."
Page 92, line 2. See note to this, Appendix, p. 557.
Page 489, line 7, for " Al Kuraishiyyah," read " Al Kurashiyyah."
Page 499, heading and line 8, for "MITELENE," read " MELITENE."
Page 544, line 26, the paragraph on TARTUS (TORTOSA) should be added
to what is given on p. 395, under the heading ANTARTUS.
PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
PART I.
INTRODUCTION.
THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS.
FOR purposes of reference a list is here given of the Arab
geographers and historians whose works are quoted in the follow-
ing pages. In addition a short biographical summary is prefixed
to the indication of the edition of the Arabic text from which the
translations have been made. Further information concerning the
various authorities and their works will generally be found in the
prefaces of the editions quoted in the present work.
The earliest extant Arab books on geography and history date
from the ninth century A.D., for it will be remembered that the
Muslims did not begin to write books until fully two centuries
had elapsed after the era of the Flight. From this period, however,
that is, from about the middle of the ninth century and down to
the end of the fifteenth of the Christian era, the names of authors
follow each other at very short intervals, and the list shows over a
score of writers, all Muslims, and nearly all writing in Arabic, who
describe for us, sometimes in considerable detail, the various
provinces of Syria and Palestine.
The list is long, but it should be stated that in many cases we
have not, in the works here named, exclusively the results of
personal observation or information at first hand. Arab authors
2 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
have plagiarized, each from his predecessor, to a very remarkable
degree ; neither is the debt always duly acknowledged. Each
tried to make his work as complete as possible by incorporating
therein all he could gather from previous writers, adding some-
thing from personal observation when the author himself happened
to have visited the places described. This constant plagiarism,
though it tends to decrease the amount of new information, is, in
one way, not without its value, since by a comparison of the
borrowed texts we are enabled to correct the mistakes of copyists
and fill in many lacunae.
The following is the list of our authorities :
1. Ibn Khurdadbih. This writer was a Persian by birth, as
his father's name shows, for Khurdad-bih signifies in old Persian
Good Gift of the Sun (as the Greeks would have said, Heliodorus],
Ibn Khurdadbih was born about the commencement of the third
century of Hijrah (corresponding to the ninth of our era) and
flourished at the court of the Abbaside Khalif Al Mu'tamid, at
Baghdad. Ibn Khurdadbih held the office of Chief of the Post
in the province of Jibal, the ancient Media, and with a view,
doubtless, of instructing his subordinates, compiled the " Hand-
book of Routes and Countries" which has come down to us as one
of the earliest of Muslim geographical treatises.
The translations here given are made from the Arabic text
published by C. Barbier de Meynard in the Journal Asiatique for
the year 1865.
2. The work of Biladhuri is of an entirely different order to the
foregoing, and only in a very secondary sense geographical. His
is the earliest historical account we possess of the Conquests of
the Muslims. He was born at Baghdad, and received his educa-
tion there during the days of the great Khalif, Al Mamun, and
lived to enjoy the favour of both Al Mutawakkil and Al Musta'in,
his successors. Biladhuri wrote his " Book of the Conquests "
about the year 869, and died in 892. His work is unfortunately
almost barren of geographical description, the names of the places
only being given, and nothing more ; all detail is confined to the
ordering of the battles, and the biographical notices of those who
took part in the actions.
THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS. 3
The translations are from the text called Kitdb Futuh al Buldctn,
published by M. J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1866.
3. Kudamah, the author of a work on the revenues of the
Muslim Empire, written about the year 880, was of Christian
origin, but, like most of his compeers, he had found it to his
advantage to embrace Islam. He occupied the post of accountant
in the Revenue Department at Baghdad, and we know nothing
further of his biography except that he died in 948.
A translation, with extracts from the Arabic text, is given by
McG. de Slane, under the title of Kitab al Kharaj\ in the Journal
Asiatique for 1862, and from this the details of revenues of Syria
inserted in Chapter i. are taken.
4. Ya'kubi (also called Ibn Wadhih) was both historian and geo-
grapher. In his History, which was written as early as the year 874,
he states that the Dome of the Rock was the work of the Khalif
'Abd al Malik, and gives the reason that prompted this prince to
construct it. This is the earliest account we possess of the origin
of this important building, and it refutes the theory advocated
by the late Mr. Fergusson, that the Dome of the Rock was
originally a Byzantine church.
Ya'kubi's Geography was written many years later than his
History, and about the year 891. It unfortunately has not reached
us in a perfect state, but the section relating to Syria is tolerably
complete. The work is curious, for it gives notes on the settle-
ments made by the various Arab tribes who had migrated into
Syria ; otherwise the book is little more than a bare list of pro-
vinces, with their chief cities, and is only interesting for the
information given of what were the great towns in those early
days.
Of Ya'kubi's biography but little is known. It would appear
that he was born in Egypt, passed the earlier part of his life in
Khurasan and the further east, and came back to spend his latter
years on the banks of the Nile in the land of his birth.
The text of the " Geography " was edited by A. W. T. Juynboll,
Leiden, 1861, and it is from this edition the translations are made.
The text of the " History" under Ya'kubi's alternative name of
Ibn Wadhih, has been edited by M. T. Houtsma, Leiden, 1883.
I 2
4 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
5. Ibn al Fakih, the author of a very curious geographical
miscellany, was a native of Hamadan, in Western Persia, and
flourished during the Khalifate of Al Mu'tadhid at Baghdad. He
wrote his work about the year 903, but unfortunately we only
possess it in the form of a somewhat arbitrary abridgment made
by a certain 'AH Shaizari, of whom little more is known than his
name. Ibn al Fakih gives a careful description of the Haram
Area at Jerusalem, and is also the first Arab author to describe
the great stones at Baalbek, of which he notes the measurements.
The text of the epitome of his work forms the fifth volume of the
Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, edited by M. J. de Goeje,
Leiden, 1885.
6. The next name on the list is that of a Spanish Arab, Ibn
'Abd Rabbih, born at Cordova in 860, and died in the same city
in 940. He composed an extremely interesting historical work,
extending to three volumes in the Cairo printed edition, giving
details of the life, and manners and customs, of the pre-Islamic
Arabs and others. The book is named " The Collar of Unique
Pearls" and in it there is a chapter describing in great detail the
appearance of the Haram Area at Jerusalem. Whether the author
ever visited the Holy City is not known ; some parts of his de-
scription are identical with what is found in Ibn al Fakih's work,
just named ; but many details again vary from the account there
given.
The Arabic text has been printed at Bulak, Cairo, in A.M. 1293
(1876), under the title Al 'Ikd al Far id.
7. Mas'udi is the author of one of the most entertaining his-
torical works to be found in the whole range of Muslim literature.
His "Meadows of Gold" begin with the Creation, and recount all
the Arabs knew of universal history down to the year 943, when
the work was written. Mas'udi was born in Baghdad towards the
end of the eighth century of our era. In his youth he travelled
far and wide, visiting Multan and parts of India, and passing through
Persia a second time on his way to India and Ceylon, whence he
returned to Baghdad via Madagascar. He travelled through
Palestine in 926, and spent some time at Antioch ; then went and
settled in Egypt about the year 955, where he died a year later, at
THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS. 5
Fustut, now called Old Cairo. Scattered broadcast among his
many volumes of historic lore are a number of geographical notes,
which are of considerable value, by reason of the early period at
which the author wrote, his acuteness of observation, and his
great learning.
The Arabic text, with a French translation, of the " Meadows of
Gold"'' (Muruj adh Dhahab} has been published by C. Barbier de
Meynard and P. de Courteille in nine vols., Paris, 1861-77 '> an d
it is from this text the translations have been made.
8 and 9. The names of Istakhri (who wrote in 951), and Ibn
Haukal (who wrote in 978), must be taken together, for the latter,
who is the better-known author of the two, only brought out an
amended and somewhat enlarged edition of the work of the former,
and to which he gave his own name. We have in this double
book the first systematic Arab geography. It is not a mere Road
Book, such as is Ibn Kurdadbih's work, nor a Revenue List, like
Kudamah's but a careful description of each province in turn
of the Muslim Empire, with the chief cities and notable places.
Istakhri, a native of Persepolis, as his name implies, states that he
wrote his book to explain the maps which had been drawn up by
a certain Balkhi, about the year 921, which maps are unfortunately
not extant. Of Istakhri and Ibn Haukal all that we know is that
they were both by trade merchants, and that they travelled far
and wide in the pursuit of commerce. All biographical details
of their lives are wanting.
The texts of Istakhri and Ibn Haukal form the first and second
volumes of M. J. de Goeje's Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum^
Leiden, 1870, 1873. The translation is made from whichever has
proved to be the fuller narrative of the two, generally but not
invariably that found in Ibn Haukal's work.
10. Al Mukaddasi, "the Hierosolomite," was born at Jerusalem
in 946. He had the advantage of an excellent education, and
after having made the Pilgrimage to Makkah in his twentieth year,
determined to devote himself to the study of geography. For the
purpose of acquiring the necessary information he undertook a
series of journeys which lasted over a score of years, and carried
him in turn through all the countries of Islam. It was only in
6 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
985 that he set himself to write his book, which gives us a sys-
tematic account of all the places and regions he had visited. His
description of Palestine, and especially of Jerusalem, his native
city, is one of the best parts of the work. All he wrote is the
fruit of his own observation, and his descriptions of the manners
and customs of the various nations and the physical features of
the various countries, bear the stamp of a shrewd and observant
mind, fortified by a profound knowledge of both books and men.
The translation of Mukaddasi I have already given in one of
the publications of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, and it is
made from the Arabic text published as the third volume of M. J.
de Goeje's Bibliotheca cited above, to which text the pages given
have reference.
11. Rather more than half a century later than Mukaddasi, and
about half a century before the first Crusade, the Persian traveller,
Nasir-i-Khusrau, passed through Palestine on his way to Makkah.
He was in Jerusalem in 1047, and his description of the Holy
City and the Haram Area is most minute, and extremely valuable,
as being the last we have of the holy places before the coming of
the Crusaders. Nasir was born in the neighbourhood of Balkh, in
1003, and during the earlier years of his life travelled in India,
where he lived for some time at the court of the celebrated Sultan
Mahmud of Ghazni. He subsequently undertook the pilgrimage
to Makkah, and it was on this occasion that he passed through
Palestine and sojourned at Jerusalem.
The portion of his Uiary having reference to the Holy Land I
have translated (from the Persian original) in a recent number of
the Palestine Pilgrims' Texts. The Persian text used is that
collated from two MSS. in the British Museum (Ad. 18418, and
Or. 1991).
A French translation of Nasir-i-Khusrau, with the Persian text
following, has been given by C. Schefer under the title of Sefcr
Nameh, Paris, 1881. The British Museum MSS., however, give
several new and important readings, and enable us to clear up not
a few of the obscurities found in the French translation.
12. Ibn Butlan's description of Antioch, and of some other of
the cities of Syria, is only known to us by the extracts preserved
THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS. 7
in Yakut's great Geographical Dictionary (see below, No. 16),
and no copy, apparently, of the original work is preserved among
the Oriental manuscript collections of our European libraries.
Yakut quotes the text verbatim from the Epistle (Itisdlah),
which Ibn Butlan addressed to his friend, Abu'l Husain Hillal ibn
al Muhsin as Sabi, at Baghdad. The Epistle was written " in the
year 440 and odd," says Yakut ; a date, however, mentioned inci-
dentally in the course of the narrative, shows that Ibn Butlan must
have passed through Antioch during the year 443 (A.D. 1051).
Ibn Butlan was a well-known Christian Arab physician, and a
native of Baghdad. In 439 (A.D. 1047) he set out from that city
to visit his Egyptian rival, the physician Ibn Rudhwan, at Cairo,
and, going thence to Constantinople, took his return journey
through Antioch. Here, age and the vanity of human wisdom
caused him to abandon the world, and he became a monk, dying
very shortly afterwards at Antioch, in the year 444 (1052 A.D.).
1 3. The geographer Idrisi, is perhaps better known in the west
than any other Arab writer on this subject. As long ago as 1592
the text of his book was printed in Rome. His Geography was
written in 1154 at the request of the Norman King, Roger II., of
Sicily, at whose court he resided. Idrisi was born at Ceuta, but of
Spanish- Arab parents. He travelled much, for he relates that he has
seen the English and French coasts, and has lived at Lisbon. His
description of Palestine is excellent, and what he says of Jerusalem
is particularly interesting, for he wrote of the Holy City as it was
during the occupation of the Crusaders. Some authorities state
that he visited Asia Minor in the year 1116, but there is no ground
for supposing that he went south of this, or that he had himself
visited the Holy Land. His information, therefore, must have
been derived from the accounts that he obtained at the court of
Roger from books, and from those who had returned from their
travels in that country.
The Arabic text from which the present translations are made
is that published in the Transactions of the German Palastina-
Verein, vol. viii., 1885, by J. Gildemeister.
14. Another Muslim who has left us a description of sites in
Palestine during Crusading times is 'AH of Herat, who wrote in
8 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
1173 a small work on " The Places of Pilgrimage." Its most in-
teresting section is that describing Hebron, wherein he gives an
account of a visit to the Cave of Machpelah. 'Ali of Herat,
though of Persian origin, wrote in Arabic. The text of his work
has not been printed; but the Bodleian Library at Oxford possesses
a good MS. of the work (MS. E. D. Clarkii 17, civ., Uri.\ from
which the translations given below have been made.
7 AH died at Aleppo, where he had lived and written his book,
in the year 1215.
15. In 1185, two years before Saladin re-conquered Jerusalem,
the northern part of Palestine was visited by the traveller Ibn
Jubair, a Spanish-Arab, born at Valencia in 1145. Ibn Jubair
set out on his travels from Granada in 1183; he came first to
Egypt, went up the Nile, and then across the desert to Aidhab,
on the Red Sea, whence he reached Makkah, and subsequently
Al Madinah. Thence he crossed Arabia to Kufah and Baghdad
(of which he has left a most interesting account) ; and, travelling
up the Tigris bank, crossed from Mosul to Aleppo, came down to
Damascus, and thence on to Acre, where he took ship, and ulti-
mately landed again on Spanish soil, at Carthagena, in 1185. Un-
fortunately for us he did not visit Jerusalem. He made two other
voyages to the East subsequent to the one above mentioned, and
on his return journey died at Alexandria, in Egypt. His descrip-
tion of the places he saw is lively and full of detail, although from
the ornate style in which he wrote, a literal translation of his Diary
would be tiresome reading. His description of Damascus is given
in Chapter vi. of the present work, and is the fullest we possess of
that city during the Middle Ages.
The Arabic text of Ibn Jubair's Diary has been published by
the late Professor William Wright, Leiden, 1852, and it is to the
pages of this work that the references, in the condensed transla-
tion given, refer.
1 6. For the immense extent of his labours, and the great bulk
of his writings, Yakut may certainly take first rank among Muslim
geographers. By birth a Greek and a slave, he was brought up and
received a scientific education at Baghdad, in the house of his
master, who was a merchant. The details of his biography would
THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS. g
take too long to recount suffice it to say that, at various periods
of his wandering life, he sojourned at Aleppo, Mosul, Arbela, and
Marv; and that he fled from this latter city (in those days renowned
for its numerous libraries) in 1220, on the advent of the armies of
Jcnghis Khan. Travelling across Persia and through Mesopotamia,
Yakut ultimately reached Syria, and settled down at Aleppo, in
which city he died in 1229. His great Geographical Lexicon,
which describes in alphabetical order every town and place of
which the author could obtain any information, was completed in
the year 1225. It is a storehouse of geographical information,
the value of which it would be impossible to over-estimate ; for
the book gives a detailed account, as seen in the thirteenth century,
of all the countries and towns in Muslim lands, from Spain, in the
West, to beyond Transoxiana and India, in the East. Some idea
of the mass of information, both geographical and historical,
therein contained, may perhaps be gathered from the statement
that the Arabic text, as printed at the cost of the German Oriental
Society, covers close on 4,000 pages, large 8vo ; and that an
English translation, with the needful notes, would occupy from
double to treble that space.
Yakut also wrote a useful dictionary of Geographical Homonyms,
being a list of different places that have identical names.
The great Geographical Dictionary referred to above, called
Mrfjam al Buldan "The Alphabetical (Dictionary) of Geography"
is edited by Professor Wiistenfeld in six volumes, Leipsic, 1866.
The Dictionary of Homonyms, called Al Mushtarik, is edited by
' the same Orientalist, and was published at Gottingen in 1846.
17. Three-quarters of a century after Yakut had finished his
great Dictionary, his work was epitomized by a certain Safi ad
Din. He added some few articles of his own, and cut down all
the descriptions of places found in Yakut, giving to each name
but a single line of text. The work is entitled Marasid al Ittila
"The Watch-Tower of Informations." Of the epitomist, Safi
ad Din, nothing is known, and even his name is somewhat a
matter of doubt; but the year 1300 must have been approximately
the date of his work, for he mentions as a recent occurrence the
taking of Acre in 1291. The text of the Marasid has been
10 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
edited by T. G. J. Juynboll (Leiden, 1859); but since this edition
has been brought out, Professor Wiistenfeld has collated a MS.
belonging to Lord Lindsay, which gives some additions to the
printed text. These have been added by Professor Wiistenfeld to
vol. v. of his edition of Yakut at pp. 11-32.
1 8. Dimashki, born in 1256 at Damascus (as his name implies),
wrote, about the year 1300, a jejune description of his native land,
which, however; affords, on certain points, many curious details of
the state of the country after the departure of the Crusaders. He
was a contemporary of Sultan Bibars, and his work is of value in
connection with the Crusading Chronicles. He died at Safed in
1327-
The text of Dimashki has been printed in Petersburg, in 1866,
by M. A. F. Mehren, and it is from this edition that the transla-
tions have been made.
19. Abu-1 Fida, some time Prince of Hamah, and a collateral
descendant of the great Saladin, is a geographer of far higher
merit than Dimashki. His chapter on Syria and Palestine is, for
the most part, not copied from books ; for since he is describing
his native country, he writes from personal observation. The
work was completed in 1321. Abu-1 Fida himself was born at
Damascus in 1273. He lived under the Mamluk Sultans of
Egypt Kalaun, Lajun, and Malik an Nasir and was named
Governor of Hamah in 1310, in which city he died in 1331.
The Arabic text of Abu-1 Fida's Geography was published by
Reinaud and De Slane (Paris, 1840), and this is the edition
quoted.
20. Ibn Batutah, the Berber, may well take rank with the
Venetian, Marco Polo,* for the marvellous extent of his journey-
ings. He was born at Tangiers about the year 1300, and at the
age of twenty-five set out on his travels. Of these he has left us
a full description, written in the year 1355. His route in the
barest outline is all that can here be indicated. Starting from
Morocco, he visited in succession Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt.
Going up through Palestine and Syria, he accompanied the Hajj
* Marco Polo returned to Venice in 1295, an d wrote his travels when in
captivity at Genoa about the year 1300.
THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS. i\
to Madman and Makkah, went thence on through Mesopotamia
to Persia, and, returning, spent some months at Baghdad,
and subsequently at Mosul. From Mosul he went again to
Makkah, and from there travelled through Yemen, and so back to
Egypt. From Egypt he took ship for Asia Minor, and afterwards
visited Constantinople, the Crimea, Astrakhan, Kharizim, Tartary,
Transoxiana, Afghanistan, and finally reached India, where he
spent a considerable time at Delhi. From India he sailed to the
Maldive Islands and Ceylon, taking them on his way to China ;
and on the return journey visited Sumatra. After long voyaging
in the Indian Ocean, he again found himself at Makkah, and
from that holy city took his way home to Fez, via the Sudan and
Timbuctoo. He subsequently visited Spain ; and died at Fez, at
an advanced age, in the year 1377.
Ibn Batutah's account of what he saw in Palestine is often
curious, and his description of Jerusalem gives a few details not
found elsewhere ; but his style is verbose and bombastic, and he
too often copies from his predecessor, Ibn Jubair, to be of much
value as an original authority.
Ibn Batutah's text, with a French translation, has been pub-
lished by C. Defremery and B. R. Sanguinetti, at the cost of the
Societc Asiatique, in four volumes, Paris, 1879 ; and this is the
edition quoted in the present work.
21. Muthir al Ghiram, or, " The Exciter of Desire " (for Visi-
tation of the Holy City and Syria), is by a native of Jerusalem
called Jamal ad Din Ahmad, who wrote a topographical descrip-
tion of the Holy City in the year 1351. Excellent MSS. of this
work, which has never yet been printed, are preserved in the
Bibliotkeque Nationale at Paris, and from these the translations
given have been made. For a full description of the MSS., and
an account of Jamal ad Din's life, I may refer to my paper on
Suyuti (who has copied Jamal ad Din), in the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, vol. xix , new series, p. 250.
22. The second Muthir \s a work with the same name as the
above, but written by a certain Abu-1 Fida Ishak, of Hebron, who
died in 1430. He describes the Sanctuary of that city, and the
Tombs of the Patriarchs. Details of the MSS. from which my
12 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
translation has been made (for the Arabic text of the work has
never been printed) will be found in the paper cited above.
23. Shams ad Din Suyuti (not to be confounded with his
better-known namesake, who bore the title of Jamal ad Din)
visited Jerusalem in 1470, and shortly after wrote a description of
the Holy City, entitled Ithaf al Akhissa, " A Gift for Intimates"
(concerning the merits of the Aksa Mosque). In this work he
largely plagiarizes from the two Muthirs mentioned above (Nos. 2 1
and 22), as I have shown in the paper in the J. R. A. S. already
mentioned. Quotations from Suyuti give references to the pages
of the J. R. A. S., vol. xix., new series.
24. Mujir ad Din, the last name on the list, though better
known than the three preceding topographers, has done little more
than reproduce verbatim the descriptions given by the authors of
the two Muthirs and Suyuti.
The work of Mujir ad Din, who wrote his Uns al Jalil in 1496,
has been translated into French by H. Sauvaire (Histoire de
Jerusalem et <T Hebron, Paris, 1876); the Arabic text also has
been printed at Bulak (Cairo), A.M. 1283 (1866), and it is to
this text that the pages given in the present translations refer.
Mujir ad Din, besides what he copies verbatim from his prede-
cessors, gives a full account of the various mosques, colleges,
shrines, tombs, and holy places in Jerusalem, and also a descrip-
tion of the quarters and streets of the Holy City as these existed
at the close of the fifteenth century.
In the present work the purely topographical details of the City
given by Mujir ad Din have not been inserted, the translations
made from his work being confined to such additional information
on the older buildings of the Hararn Area and neighbouring sites
as seemed of importance in connection with the statements of
previous writers.
Besides the above authorities I have sought to verify dates of
historical events by references to the pages of the great Chronicles
of Tabari, and of Ibn al Athir. The text of the former Chronicle
is now in course of publication at Leiden, under the editorship of
THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS. 13
M. J. de Goeje ; and it is to the various volumes of this edition
that the quotations here given refer. Ibn al Athir's Chronicle
has been edited in Arabic in fourteen volumes, by C. J. Tornberg,
Leiden, 1867-76.
The various publications of the Palestine Exploration Fund
(P.E.F.) Survey of Western Palestine, as embodied in the Memoirs
(in three volumes), the volume on Jerusalem, and the Special
Papers, also the numbers of the Quarterly Statement, will often
be found quoted in the following pages ; as also the publications
of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (P.P.T.), which describe
the Holy Land in the days of the Crusaders and the early
Christian Pilgrims.
The following list gives the initials under which reference is
made to the works of the Arab geographers and travellers in the
editions named in the foregoing pages :
A.D.
A.H.
I. (I. Kh.)
Ibn Khurdadbih wrote
. circa 864
250
2. (Bil.)
Biladhuri
869
255
3. (Kud.)
Kudamah
. circa 880
266
( " History "
874
260
4. (Yb.)
( " Geography " ...
891
2 7 8
5- (LF.)
Ibn al Fakih
903
290
6. (I.R.)
Ibn 'Abd Rabbin .
. circa 913
300
7. (Mas.)
Mas'ddi . - .
943
332
8. (Is.)
Istakhri
951
340
9- (I.H.)
Ibn Haukal .
978
367
10. (Muk.)
Mukaddasi . .
985
375
ri. (N. Kh.)
Nasir-i-Khusrau
1047
438
12.
Ibn Butlan (in Yakftt)
1051
443-
13. (Id.)
Idrisi .
"54
548
14. (A.H.)
'Ali of Herat .
"73
569
15- dj.)
Ibn Jubair . .^ .,
1185
581
1 6. (Yak.)
Yakut
1225
623
17- (Mar.)
The author of the Mardsid .
1300
700
18. (Dim.)
Dimashki . . .,
. circa 1300
700
19. (A.F.)
Abu-1-Fida . .
1321
721
20. (I.E.)
Ibn Batutah . . .
1355
756
21. (Muth. I.)
The author of the first Muthtr
1351
752
22. (Muth. II.)
The author of the second MutMr
1430
833
23. (S.)
Shams ad Din Suyuti :.
1470
875
24. (M.a.D.)
Mujir ad Din. .
1496
901
CHAPTER I.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE.
The name "Ash Sham." Physical features. Climate. Prod nets. Manners
and customs. Festivals. The Watch-stations of the coast.
Territorial Divisions: The "Junds," or Military Districts. Jund
Filastin. The Tih, or Desert of the Wanderings. The Jifar. Jund al
Urdunn. The Ghaur. Jund Dimashk. The Ghutah of Damascus, the
Hauran, and Bathaniyyah, Jaulan, jaidur, and Iluiah. The Balka. - A>h
Sharah. Al Jibal. Jund Hims. Jund Kinnasrin. Jund 'Awasim. The
Thughur. The Nine "Kingdoms" of Syria.
Tribute and 7 axes. Weights and Measures.
SYRIA a name first given by the Greeks to the country lying im-
mediately round Sdr, or Tyre, and which afterwards came to be
applied by them to the whole province was never adopted by the
Arabs as a general term for the lands on the eastern border of the
Mediterranean. The whole of the great and fertile tract of moun-
tain-land and plain, generally known to us as Syria and Palestine,
extending from the Cilician Passes on the north, to the desert of
Egypt on the south, and bounded on the west and east by the sea
and the desert of Arabia respectively, the Arabs called Ash Sham,
that being an ancient Arabic word for " left," (or " north ") when
the speaker faced the rising sun. Another, and more fanciful,
etymology of this name is also given by Mukaddasi and others :
" It has been said that Syria is called ' Sham,' " says Mukaddasi,
" because it lies on the left of the Ka'abah, and also because those
who journey thither (from the Hijjaz) bear to the left or north ; or
else it may be because there are in Syria so many Beauty-spots,
such as we call Shamat red, white and black (which are the
fields and gardens held to resemble the moles on a beauty's face)/'
(Muk., 152.)
I
1 1
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 15
The same author continues :
"Syria is very pleasantly situated. The country, physically,
may be divided into four zones. The first zone is that on the
border of the Mediterranean Sea. It is the plain-country, the
sandy tracts following one another, and alternating with the culti-
vated land. Of towns situated herein are Ar Ramlah, and also
all the cities of the sea-coast. The second zone is the mountain-
country, well wooded, and possessing many springs, with frequent
villages, and cultivated fields. Of the cities that are situated in
this part are : Bait Jibril, Jerusalem, Nabulus, Al-Lajjun, Kabul,
Kadas, the towns of the Bika' and Antioch. The third zone is
that of the valleys of the (Jordan) Ghaur, wherein are found many
villages and streams, also palm-trees, well cultivated fields, and
indigo plantations. Among the towns in this part are Wailah,
Tabuk, Sughar, Jericho, Baisan, Tiberias, Baniyas. The fourth
zone is that bordering on the Desert. The mountains here are
high and bleak, and the climate resembles that of the Waste ; but
it has many villages, with springs of water and forest trees. Of
the towns therein are Maab, 'Amman, Adhra'ah, Damascus, Hims,
Tadmur, and Aleppo." (Muk., 186.)
" The climate of Syria is temperate, except in that portion which
lies in the centre region of the province, between Ash Sharah
(Mount Seir) and Al Hulah (the waters of Merom) ; and this is
the hot country where grow the indigo-tree, the banana, and the
palm. One day when I (Mukaddasi) was staying in Jericho, the
physician Ghassan said to me, ' Seest thou this valley ?' (that is,
the Jordan Ghaur). ' Yes,' I answered. And he continued, ' It
extends from hence as far as the Hijjaz, and thence through Al
Yamamah to 'Oman and Hajar ; thence passing up by Basrah and
Baghdad towards the left (west) of Mosul, it reaches to Ar Rakkah,
and it is always a Wady of heat and of palm-trees.' "
" The coldest place in Syria is Ba'albakk and the country
round, for among the sayings of the people it is related how, when
men asked of the cold, 'Where shall we find thee ?' it was
answered, * In the Balka ;' and when they further said, * But if we
meet thee not there ?' then the cold added, ' Verily in Ba'albakk
is my home.' "
1 6 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" Now Syria is a land of blessing, a country of cheapness,
abounding in fruits, and peopled by holy men. The upper pro-
vince, which is near the dominions of the Greeks, is rich in
streams and crops, and the climate of it is cold. And the lower
province is even more excellent, and pleasanter, by reason of the
lusciousness of its fruits and in the great number of its palm-trees.
But in the whole country of Syria there is no river carrying boats,
except only for the ferry." (Muk., 179.)
" Unequalled is this land of Syria for its dried figs, its common
olive-oil, its white bread, and the Ramlah veils ; also for the
quinces, the pine-nuts called * Kuraish-bite,' the 'Ainuni and Duri
raisins, the Theriack-antidote, the herb of mint, and the rosaries of
Jerusalem. And further, know that within the province of
Palestine may be found gathered together six-and-thirty products
that are not found thus united in any other land. Of these the
first seven are found in Palestine alone ; the following seven are very
rare in other countries ; and the remaining two-and-twenty, though
only found thus gathered together in this province, are, for the
most part, found one and another, singly, in other lands. Now the
first seven are the pine-nuts, called ' Kuraish-bite,' the quince or
Cydonian-apple, the 'Ainuni and the Duri raisins, the Kafuri plum,
the fig called As Saba'i, and the fig of Damascus. The next
seven are the Colocasia or water lily, the sycamore, the carob or St.
John's bread (locust-tree), the lotus-fruit or jujube, the artichoke,
the sugar-cane, and the Syrian apple. And the remaining twenty-
two are the fresh dates and olives, the shaddock, the indigo and
juniper, the orange, the mandrake, the Nabk fruit, the nut, the
almond, the asparagus, the banana, the sumach, the cabbage, the
truffle, the lupin, and the early prune, called At Tari ; also snow,
buffalo-milk, the honey-comb, the 'Asimi grape, and the Tamri or
date-fig. Further, there is the preserve called Kubbait ; you find,
in truth, the like of it in name elsewhere, but of a different
flavour. The lettuce also, which everywhere else, except only at
Ahwaz (in Persia), is counted as a common vegetable, is here in
Palestine a choice dish. However, at Basrah, too, it is held
superior to the more common vegetables." (Muk., 181.)
Some few of these items require explanation : The Theriack,
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 17
called in Arabic Taryak, borrows its name from the Greek
@r,pia'/.6v <j>dp!J,ar.w t "a drug against venomous bites." It was
generally compounded with treacle and other ingredients of most
varied description.
" Kuraish-bite," according to our dictionaries, is the fruit of the
Finns picea and also of the smaller Snobur-pine, Strobili pint.
The Sugar-cane was cultivated during the Middle Ages in many
parts of Syria and Palestine, especially at Tripoli on the sea-coast
(see Part II., Tarabulus\ and in the hot Jordan Ghaur. Every-
where in this district the traveller at the present day meets with
ruined mills for crushing the cane, named Tawdhln as Sukkdr.
The cultivation of the cane was introduced into western countries
from Kuzistan in Persia, and, throughout the Middle Ages, Shuster
(the ancient Susa) was renowned for this manufacture on a large
scale. The art of sugar-refining was very extensively practised by
the Arabs, and under their dominion the growth of the cane and
the manufacture of sugar spread far and wide, from India eastward
to Morocco, and was introduced into Europe through the Muslim
conquests in Spain and Sicily.
In regard to the Orange, the researches of Gallesio have proved
that India was the country from which this fruit spread first to
Western Asia, and eventually to Europe. From remote antiquity
the orange has been cultivated in Hindustan, and before the close
of the ninth century the bitter variety seems to have been well
known to the Arabs, who had introduced it into the countries of
South-Western Asia. Mas'udi, who wrote in the year 943 (332),
has the following account of the acclimatization of orange and
citron trees :
" The orange-tree (Shajar an JVdranj\ and the tree bearing
the round citron (al Utrnj al mudawwar\ have been brought from
India since the year 300 A.M. (912 A.D.), and were first planted in
'Oman. Thence they were carried by caravans from Al Basrah into
'Irak and Syria. The trees have now become very numerous in
the houses of the people of Tarsus and other of the Syrian frontier
towns ; also in Antioch and in all the Syrian coast towns, with
those of Palestine and Egypt, where, but a short time ago, they
were unknown. The fruit, however, has lost its original perfume
1 8 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
and flavour, as also the fine colour it shows in India, and this is
because of the change from the peculiar soil and climate and
water of its native land." (Mas., ii. 438.)
The Mandrake, called in Arabic Luffah, is the Fructus atropce
Mandragorce, of botanists. Its root is called Yabriih by the
Arabs, and is poisonous, while its fruit is edible.
In his chapter on Egypt, Mukaddasi describes the Nabk as " a
fruit of the size of the medlar (Zu'riir). It contains numerous
kernels, and is sweet. It is the fruit of the Sidr (the tree-lotus).
To the fruit they add (the sweet paste called) Nidah, which
is the same as Samanu, only more finely prepared, and then
spread it out on reed-matting until it dries and sticks together "
(Muk., 204). " Samanu " is a sweet paste that is well known at
the present day all over Persia, and " Nidah " is the sweetmeat for
which the town of Menshiyyeh in Egypt, is famous.
The preserve called " Kubbait," also called Kubbat^m^. Kubbad,
is a sweetmeat made with carob-sugar, almonds, and pistachio
nuts.
Mukaddasi, continuing his account, gives the following details
of the commerce of Syria in the tenth century :
" The trade of Syria is considerable.
" From Palestine come olives, dried figs, raisins, the carob-
fruit, stuffs of mixed silk and cotton, soap and kerchiefs.
" From Jerusalem come cheeses, cotton, the celebrated raisins
of the species known as 'Ainuni and Duri, excellent apples,
bananas which same is a fruit in the form of a cucumber, but
when the skin is peeled off, the interior is not unlike the water-
melon, only finer flavoured and more luscious also pine nuts of
the kind called ' Kuraish-bite,' and their equal is not found else-
where ; further, mirrors, lamp-jars, and needles.
" From Jericho is brought excellent indigo.
" From Sughar and Baisan come both indigo and dates, also the
treacle called Dibs.
" From 'Amman grain, lambs, and honey.
" From Tiberias carpet stuffs, paper, and cloth.
" From Kadns clothes of the stuffs called Munayyir and
afmyyah, also ropes.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 19
" From Tyre come sugar, glass beads and glass vessels both
cut and blown.
" From Maab almond kernels.
" From Baisan rice.
" From Damascus come all these : olive-oil fresh-pressed, the
Bafhiyyah cloth, brocade, oil of violets of an inferior quality,
brass vessels, paper, nuts, dried figs, and raisins.
" From Aleppo, cotton, clothes, dried figs, dried herbs, and the
red-chalk called Al Maghrah.
" Ba'albakk produces the sweetmeat of dried figs called Malban"
(Muk., 180.)
In the above lists some items demand explanation : The Dibs
treacle is boiled-down fruit-syrup. It is often made from dates
or raisins, steeped in their own weight of water, boiled up and
then allowed to simmer ; the mass being finally set in the sun to
dry, when a paste-like residue is left behind.
The Paper here mentioned is the cotto //-paper,* known as
Charta datnascena, or Bombydna during the Middle Ages, which
the Arabs had learnt the art of making after their capture of
Samarkand in A.D. 704. Although as early as the tenth century
Bombycinum was used at Rome, this cotton-paper did not come
into general use throughout Europe much before the middle of
the thirteenth century, and tinea-paper was first made in the
fourteenth century.
The cloth called Munayyir was of double woof, and celebrated
for its durability, being chiefly manufactured at Shiraz and Ray
(Rhages), in Persia, where it was known by the name of Daibud.
Of the BaVlsiyyah no details are given in the dictionaries.
The red-chalk called Maghrah is the mineral Rubrica Sinopica,
much used by the druggists of the Middle Ages in the concoction
of specifics. It was especially employed in the clyster, and as a
remedy in cases of liver disease ; for which it is recommended by
Dioscorides.
* That Charta Bombydna was made from cotton is the generally received
statement, which, however, M. C. M. Briquet has recently controverted.
According to this last authority, Botnbycina was made from hemp and the
remains of old ropes. See his work La Lcgcnde Palcographique dn Papier de
Coton, Geneve, 1884.
2 2
20 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
The Malban sweetmeat is noticed by the Jewish doctor
Maimonides, who calls it " Malben " (in Hebrew 7 ), and describes it
as made of figs pressed into the form of small bricks.
Treating of the mineral products of Syria, Mukaddasi continues :
" There are iron-mines in the mountains above Bairut, and
near Aleppo is found the red-chalk called Maghrah. It is here of
excellent quality ; at 'Amman, w r here it is also found, it is less good.
Throughout Syria there are met with many mountains of a reddish
colour, the rocks of which are known as of the Samakah (or red-
sandstone), which same is easily quarried. Also other mountains
of a whitish colour, formed of what is called Hawwarah (or wliite-
chalk) ; this is soft, and they use it to whitewash the ceilings, and
for the cementing of the terrace-roofs of the houses. In Pales-
tine there are quarries of good white building-stone ; and near
Bait Jabril, in many places, marble is found. From the Ghaur
districts they bring sulphur, and other such-like minerals ; and
from the Dead Sea they get salt in powder. The best honey
is that from Jerusalem, where the bee? suck the thyme ; and
likewise from the Jabal 'Amilah. The finest quality of the sauce
called Muri is that which is made at Jericho." (Muk., 184.)
The Muri sauce, here mentioned, is a pickle made from certain
fish or meat set in salt water. It has medicinal properties, duly
noted by Galen, Dioscorides, and others, and was known to the
Romans under the name of Garum or Muria. One Al Hafiz
calls it " the pearl of condiments."
" The water in Syria," says Mukaddasi, " is for the most part
excellent. That found at Baniyas, however, acts aperiently ; and
the water of Tyre causes constipation. At Baisan the water is
heavy and bad ; while verily we take refuge in Allah from that of
Sughar ! The water of Bait ar Ram is execrable ; but nowhere
do you find lighter (better) water than at Jericho. The water of
Ar Ramlah is easy of digestion : but that of Nabulus is hard. In
Damascus and Jerusalem the water is not so hard, for the
climate of these towns is less arid." (Muk., '184.)
Of the general manners and customs of Syria Mukaddasi has
the following :
' In the Syrian mosques it is the wont to keep the lamps always
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 21
lighted, and they are suspended by chains even as at Makkah. In
the chief town of every province, the public treasure is kept in
the great mosque, it being placed in a chamber supported upon
pillars. And in their mosques, except only in the one at Jericho, it
is of usage to have doors shutting off the Main-building from the
Court, which latter is flagged with stone. The court of the great
mosque at Tiberias alone in all this province is paved with
pebbles.
"The minarets are built square, and they set a pitched roof *
(called Jamalan, meaning 'camel-backed') over the Main-building
of the mosques ; also, at all the mosque gates, and in the market-
places, are cells for the ablution.
" Of Christian feasts that are observed also by the Muslims of
Syria, for the division of the seasons of the year, are the following :
Easter, at the new year (old style, the vernal equinox) ; Whitsuntide,
at the time of heat ; Christmas, at the time of cold ; the Feast of St.
Barbara (4th of Kanun I., December), in the rainy season and
the people have a proverb which says : ' When St. Barbara's feast
comes round, then the mason may take to his flute/ meaning that
he may then sit quiet at home ; the Feast of the Kalends (ist of
Kanun II., January) and, again, one of their proverbs is : * When
the Kalends come, keep warm and stay at home ' ; the Feast of the
Cross (i3th or i4th of Ilul, September), at the time of grape-
gathering ; and the feast of Lydda (or the Feast of St. George,
23rd of Nisan, April), at the time of sowing the seed.
"The months in use in Syria are the solar months of the
Greeks ; namely, Tishrin, first and second (October and Novem-
ber) ; Kanun, first and second (December and January) ; Shibat
(February); Adhar (March); Nisan (April); Ayyar (May);
Hazairan (June) ; Tammuz (July) ; Ab (August) ; and Ilul
(September)." (Muk., 182.)
Mukaddasi continues : "It is seldom recorded that any juris-
prudist of Syria propounds new doctrines, or that any Muslim
here is the writer of aught ; except only at Tiberias, where the
scribes have ever been in repute. And verily the scribes here in
Syria, even as is the case in Egypt, are all Christians, for the Muslims
* See Chapter III., Mukaddasi's description of the Aksa Mosque.
22 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
abandon to them entirely this business, and, unlike the men of
other nations, do not hold letters a profitable subject of study.
" In this province of Syria, also, for the most part, the assayers
of coin, the dyers, bankers, and tanners, are Jews, while it is
most usual for the physicians and the scribes to be Christians.
" The Syrians are a well-dressed folk. Both learned and simple
wear the long cloak called Rida, and they do not put on lighter
garments in summer-time, except it be in the matter of the single-
soled shoe.
" The Syrians wear the heavy rain-cloaks, of wool, called Mini tar,
thrown open ; and their ' Tailasans ' have not the hollowed form.
In Ar Ramlah the chief shopkeepers are wont to ride Egyptian
asses, with fine saddles, and it is only Amirs and chiefs who keep
horses. The villagers and the scribes wear the woollen vest called
Durra'ah. The clothing of the peasantry in the villages round
Jerusalem and Nabulus consists of a single shirt, called the A'z'sd,
and they wear no drawers beneath it." (Muk., 182, 183.)
The Tailasan here alluded to was the distinctive head-dress of
the Kadis, or judges, and the men of learning. It consisted of a
veil (also called Tarhah\ worn above the ordinary turban, allowed
to fall back over the shoulders. It was usually made of white
muslin or linen stuff. The word I have rendered by "hollowed,"
mukawwar, may also signify "starched," but it is generally taken
to denote the "nick," or cavity, left at the top of the head-dress.
The Durra'ah (also called Midra'aK) was a short vest generally
worn open in front, but having buttons to fasten it if desired. It
was made of coloured stuffs, and in cloth or other woollen fabric.
The Kisa is the long shirt or smock, reaching from the neck
almost to the feet it was of either white or coloured stuff. The
dress of the Fellahin of Palestine is, down to the present time,
exactly what Mukaddasi here describes. In reading the mediaeval
writers, those who have travelled in modern Syria will be con-
stantly struck by the fact that most of the customs noticed by these
authors are still kept up at the present day. The following descrip-
tion of the bread-ovens, in particular, applies precisely to what may
now be seen in every Druze village of Mount Carmel.
"The people of Syria," writes Mukaddasi, "have ovens, and
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 23
the villagers especially make use of the kind called Tabun. These
are small, and used for baking bread, and are dug in the
ground. They line them with pebbles, and kindling the fire of
dried dung within and above, they afterwards remove the hot
aslu-s and place the loaves of bread to bake upon these pebbles,
when they have become thus red-hot. There are also bakers in
Syria of the lentil-bread, and of the dish called Baisar (of beans
cooked in honey and milk). In this province, too, they boil in
olive-oil beans that have already sprouted, and then fry them,
which is a dish sold for eating with olives. Also they salt the
lupin, and use it much for food. From the carob-bean they make
a species of sweetmeat, which is called Kubbait ; that made from
the sugar-cane is known for distinction as Natif (that is, sweet
meat). During the winter-time they bake the sugared butter-
cakes called Zidlabiyyah; these are of pastry, but in Syria they
are not made, as elsewhere, with cross-bars on the top and con-
fection of fruit. In the greater number of the above customs the
Syrians resemble the Egyptians, but in some few they have the
ways of the inhabitants of 'Irak and Akur (that is Lower and
Upper Mesopotamia)." (Muk., 183.)
" All along the sea-coast of Filastin are the Watch-stations, called
Ribat, where the levies assemble. The war- ships and the galleys
of the Greeks also come into these ports, bringing aboard of them
the captives taken from the Muslims ; these they offer for ransom
three for the hundred Dinars.* And in each of these ports there
are men who know the Greek tongue, for they have missions to
the Greeks, and trade with them in divers wares. At the Stations,
whenever a Greek vessel appears, they sound the horns ; also, if
it be night, they light a beacon there on the tower ; or, if it be
day, they make a great smoke. From every Watch-station on the
coast up to the capital ( Ar Ramlah) there are built, at intervals, high
towers, in each of which is stationed a company of men. On the
occasion of the arrival of the Greek ships the men, perceiving
these, kindle the beacon on the tower nearest to the coast-station,
and then on that lying next above it, and onwards, one after
* That is, about 16 for each captive, equivalent, however, in the currency
of the present day, to nearly 50 ; see p. 44.
24 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
another, so that hardly is an hour elapsed before the trumpets
are sounding in the capital, and drums are beating in the towers,
calling the people down to the Watch-station by the sea. And
they hurry out in force, with their arms, and the young men of
the village gather together. Then the ransoming begins. Some
will be able to ransom a prisoner, while others (less rich)
will throw down silver Dirhams, or signet-rings, or contribute some
other valuable, until at length all the prisoners who are in the
Greek ships have been ransomed. Now the Watch-stations of
this province of Filastin, where this ransoming of captives takes
place, are these : Ghazzah, Mimas, 'Askalan, Mahuz- (the port of)
Azdud, Mahuz- (the port of) Yubna, Yafah, and Arsuf." (Muk.,
I77-)
TERRITORIAL DIVISIONS.
When, towards the close of the first half of the seventh century
of our era, the great wave of Arab conquest swept over Syria, and
wrested that province from the Byzantine dominion, the march
of the invading hordes came down along the well-known caravan
route, leading from Makkah and Al Madinah to Damascus, which
lay along what is now the return Pilgrim Road from the Hijjaz to
the cities of Syria. Hence the first territories that came under
the power of Islam were the countries east of the Jordan and the
Dead Sea; and it was not till Damascus and its territory in the
north had been taken, that Galilee, the lowlands of the Jordan
Province, and Palestine, were overrun by the Muslims. The
subjugation of the provinces north of Damascus, with the great
cities of Antioch, Aleppo, and Emessa, followed almost imme-
diately on the foregoing, and thus completed the conquest of Syria.
The line taken by the Arabs on their inroad explains the
political divisions into which the conquered territories came to be
parcelled out when the second Khalif, the great administrator
'Omar, settled the government of the Muslim Empire. Syria was
divided into provinces, each of which was termed a Jund. The
word, according to the lexicons, means, primarily, " a troop of
soldiers." In Syria it was applied to the " military districts " in
which a special body of troops lay in garrison, and hence in parti-
cular the five great military districts into which Syria was divided.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 25
These five were the following : The Jund of Damascus, and,
northwards, the Jund of Hims and the Jund of Kinnasrin. West
and south-west of the Damascus Jund was the Jordan District,
called Jund al Urdunn, comprising Galilee, and the Sea of Galilee,
:?nd the lowlands of the Jordan, down to the Dead Sea. West of
this again lay Palestine proper, the Jund Filastin, which included
all the countries lying to the south of the great plain of Acre
and Esdraelon to the west of the Jordan cleft and the Dead Sea.
This Jund had the sea for its western boundary, and the Desert of
the Wanderings and the road to Egypt closing it on the south.
The country lying north of the Damascus Province had, in the
first years of the Arab conquest, formed but a single Jund, called,
after its chief town, Jund Hims (Emessa). When Mu'awiyah
(66 1 679), the first Khalif of the house of Omayyah, had suc-
ceeded in putting down his rival 'Ali (the Prophet's son-in-law),
and had detached the people of Northern Mesopotamia from
their allegiance to the latter, he erected the lands where they
had settled into a separate district, calling it Jund Kinnasrin.
This is the account given by Dimashki, a somewhat late authority
(1300). The early historian Biladhuri (869) states, on the other
hand, that it was the Khalif Yazid, son of Mu'awiyah above
mentioned, who instituted the new Jund of Kinnasrin by separat-
ing these territories from those of Hims. (Bil., 132 ; copied by
Yak., iii. 742.) The new province was called the Jund of
Kinnasrin, after its chief town of that name, the ancient
Chalcis. It comprised the districts round Aleppo, Antioch, and
Manbij.
Syria, thus divided into five Junds, so remained during all the
days of the Damascene Khalifate of the Omayyads. After the
fall of that dynasty, and the rise of the Abbasides, who made
Baghdad their capital, on the Tigris, the northern frontiers of
Syria were considerably extended by the conquests of the Khalif
Al Mansur and his successors ; and in the reign of Harun ar
Rashid, about the year 170 (786), it was found necessary to sub-
divide the now overgrown Jund of Kinnasrin. The country, there-
fore, towards the Greek frontier, comprising the territories from
Antioch westward to the coast, and astward to Aleppo and Manbij,
26 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
was erected into a new Jund, called Jund al 'Awasim, the latter
word being the plural of 'Asim, signifying a "stronghold." North
of this again, and on the actual frontier, was the district called
Ath Thughur that of the "frontier fortresses." These frontier
fortresses were often divided into the Thughur of Syria, to the
westward, and the Thughur of Mesopotamia, to the eastward.
The district consisted of the long chain of fortresses that guarded
the northern frontier of Syria, built there for keeping out the in-
cursions of the Greeks. This chain of fortresses ran from Tarsus,
Adana, and Mopsuestia, on the west, by Malatiyah and Hisn
Mansur, to the line of the upper waters of the Euphrates at
Samosata and Balis, on the east. (Cf. Dim., 192, 214.)
To return, however, to the early division of Syria into five Junds.
These corresponded very nearly with the old Roman and Byzantine
provinces, such as the Arabs found in existence at the time of the
conquest, and which are described in the Code of Theodosius, a
work that dates from the fifth century A.D.
Palaestina Prima, with Caesarea for its capital, comprising Judaea
and Samaria, became the Arab Jund of Filastin, with Ramlah for
capital.
Palaestina Secunda, with Scythopolis (Beth Shean, Baisan) for
its capital, comprising the two Galilees and the western part of
Peraea, became the Jund of Al Urdunn (the Jordan), with Tiberias
for the new capital.
Palaestina Tertia, or Salutaris, including Idumaea and Arabia
Petraea, was absorbed partly into the Damascus Jund, and partly
was counted in Filastin.
Phoenicia Prima, with Tyre for its capital, and Phoenicia
Secunda, or Ad Libanum, became, in the new arrangement
(together with many of the outlying lands east of the Jordan) the
great Jund of Damascus.
Syria Secunda, north of this, with Apameia for its capital, was
divided by the Arabs between the Junds of Hamah and Hims.
Lastly, Syria Prima, with Antioch for its capital, became the
Jund of Halab, or Kinnasrin ; or, more exactly, that portion of it
which was ultimately made into a separate district, under the
name of the Jund of the 'Awasim.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 27
The Junds, and the two Northern Provinces, are described by
the Arab geographers in the following terms :
" The provinces of Syria," write Istakhri and Ibn Haukal in the
tenth century, " are Jund Filastin, and Jund al Urdunn, Jund
Dimashk, Jund Hims, and Jund Kinnasrin. Then the 'Awashn
and the Thughur.
" The frontiers of Syria are the following : On the west, the
Bahr Rum (the Greek or Mediterranean Sea); on the east, the
desert from Ailah to the Euphrates ; and along this river to the
frontiers of Rum (the Greek country). The northern frontier is
the country of Rum, while the southern is the frontier of Egypt,
and the Tih (the Desert of the Wanderings) of the Bani Israil.
"The furthest point south of Syria towards Egypt is Rafh.
North, towards the country of Rum, the furthest limits are the
Fortresses (Thughur), which of old times were called the Meso-
potamian Fortresses. These are Malatyah (Malatia, Mitelene),
Al Hadath, Mar'ash, Al Haruniyyah, Al Kanisah, 'Ain Zarbah,
Al Massisah, Adhanah, and Tarsus. We reckon all these Fortresses
as belonging to Syria, speaking generally ; but although some have
always been known as the Fortresses of Syria, others are often
called the Fortresses of Mesopotamia. In truth, however, they
are all Syrian; for whatever lies on this side (or west of) the
Euphrates belongs to Syria. However, it is to be noted that
those named first, from Malatyah to Mar'ash, are generally called
the Mesopotamian Fortresses, because they are always garrisoned
by the people of Mesopotamia, who make military incursions
thence into the country of the Greeks ; and they are not so called
because they really belong to the province of Mesopotamia."
(Is., 55; I. H, 108.)
Writing in the fourteenth century, after the overthrow of the
Frank dominion, Abu-1 Fida remarks :
" The limits of Syria in our days include the kingdom of
Little Armenia, which is called the Bilad Sis. The northern
frontier, therefore, goes from Balis beside the Euphrates, through
Kala'at Najm, Al Birah, Kala'at ar Rum, Sumaisat, Hisn Mansur,
Bahasna, Mar'ash, and thence by the Bilad Sis to Tarsus and the
Mediterranean Sea." (A. F., 226.)
28 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
i. JUND FILASTIN (Palestine) and its sub-districts. Subordinate
to this district were those of the Tin (the Desert of the Wander-
ings of the Children of Israel), and of Al Jifar, both lying towards
the Egyptian Frontier. Of the Jund Filastin, the ancient capital
(says Ya'kubi) was Ludd (Lydda). The Khalif Sulaiman sub-
sequently founded the city of Ar Ramlah, which he made the
capital, and Lydda fell to decay, for its population all removed to
Ar Ramlah, the new capital.* The same author, who wrote in the
ninth century of our era, continues : " The population of Palestine
consists of Arabs of the tribes of Lakhm, Judham, 'Amilah,
Kindah, Kais and Kinanah." (Yb., 116, 117.)
" Filastin," write Istakhri and Ibn Haukal, " is the westernmost
of the provinces of Syria. In its greatest length from Rafh to the
boundary of Al Lajjun (Legio), it would take a rider two days
to travel over; and the like time to cross the province in its
breadth from Yafa (Jaffa) to Riha (Jericho). Zughar (Segor, Zoar)
and the country of Lot's people (Diyar Kaum Luf] ; Al Jibal (the
mountains of Edom), and Ash Sharah as far as Ailah Al Jibal
and Ash Sharah being two separate provinces, but lying contiguous
one to the other are included in Filastin, and belong to its govern-
ment.
" Filastin is watered by the rains and the dew. Its trees and
its ploughed lands do not need artificial irrigation ; and it is only
in Nabulus that you find the running waters applied to this pur-
pose. Filastin is the most fertile of the Syrian provinces. Its
capital and largest town is Ar Ramlah, but the Holy City (of
Jerusalem) comes very near this last in size. In the province of
Filastin, despite its small extent, there are about twenty mosques,
with pulpits for the Friday prayer." (Is., 56, 57; I.H., 111-113;
copied by Id., 3, 4, and A.F., 226.)
Among the towns of Filastin mentioned as conquered by the
Arab General 'Amr ibn al 'As, at the invasion, are Ghazzah (Gaza),
Sabastiyah (Samaria), Nabulus (Shechem), Kaisariyyah (Caesarea),
Ludd (Lydda), Yubna, 'Amwas (Emmaus), Yafa (Joppa), Rafh, and
Bait Jibrin. At this last he enclosed a domain to which he gave
the name of 'Ajlun, after one of his freedmen. (Bil. 138.)
* See Chapter VIII., " Ar Ramlah."
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 29
" Filastin," writes Yakut, in the thirteenth century, " is the last
of the provinces of Syria towards Egypt. Its capital is Jerusalem.
Of the principal towns are 'Askalan, Ar Ramlah, Ghazzah, Arsuf,
Kaisariyyah, Nabulus, Ariha (Jericho), 'Amman, Yafah, and Bait
Jibrin. Most part of Filastin is mountainous, and but little plain
country is met with. This Province is referred to in the Kuran
(XXI. 71) in the words, 'And we brought Abraham and Lot in
safety to the land which we have blessed for all human beings.'
The name is from Filastin, son of Sam, son of Aram, son of Sam
(Shem) son of Nun (Noah), but there are also other genealogies."
(Yak. iii., 913; Mar. ii., 362.)
The District of the Tih belongs to Filastin. Of this Istakhri
writes :
" At Tih, the Desert of the Children of Israel is said to be forty
leagues long and nearly as much across. It is a country full of
sand. Part of it is sterile, though here and there are palm-
trees growing, and water in springs. Its limits are the Jifar dis-
trict on the one side, and Mount Sinai and its district on the
other. To the north of the Tih lie the outer limits of the Holy
City and other parts of Palestine ; and its southern frontier is in
the desert beyond the Rif district of Egypt, lying towards the
Red Sea." (Is. 53; I.H. 104.)
"The Tih, or Desert of the Children of Israel," says Mukad-
dasi, " is a place on the situation of which there is some discussion.
The most reliable account is that it is the desert country, lying
between Syria and Egypt, which same is forty leagues across in
every direction ; everywhere are sand tracts, salt marshes, and red
sandstone hills, while occasionally palm-trees and springs of water
may be met with. The limits of this district are, on the one
hand, the district of Al Jifar, and on the other Mount Sinai ; to
the west the desert limit is conterminous with the Egyptian pro-
vince of Ar Rif; and on the other side the Tih goes up to Syria.
Through it lies the pilgrim road to Makkah." (Muk. 179 )
" At Tih," according to Idrisi, " is the land lying between the
Red Sea and the Syrian Sea. It extends for a space of some seven
marches, and is called Fahs at Tih (The Region of the Wander-
ings), for it was here that the children of Israel wandered in the
30 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
time of Moses peace be upon him ! They wandered here during
forty years without entering any city, or sojourning in any house,
and no man had change of raiment, neither did any experience
growth in stature. The length of this region of the Tih is about
six days' journey." (Id. i and 21.) Yakut epitomises the above,
and adds nothing new. (Yak. i., 912 ; Mar. i., 123.)
"Of the desert districts of the Tih of the children of Israel,"
writes Dimashki, " are the Israelitish towns, namely, Kadas (Kadesh
Barnea), Huwairak, Al Khalasah (Elusa), Al Khalus (Lyssa), As
Saba' (Beersheba), and Al Madurah all these belonging to the
Tih." (Dim. 213.)
The District of Al Jifar, often counted as belonging to Filastin,
is thus described by Istakhri :
"The district called Al Jifar (the Wells or Waterpits) is the
tract of country extending from the borders of the Lake of Tinnis
(in Egypt) to the frontiers of Filastin. It is a country of continuous
fine and coloured sand, dotted about with palm-trees and habita-
tions, with water here and there. The frontiers of the Jifar are
the Mediterranean, the Desert of the Tih, Palestine, and the Sea
of Tinnis, with the adjoining lands going from Rif of Egypt to the
border of Kulzum (the Red Sea). There are found in this dis-
trict serpents a span long, who spring up from the sand into the
camel-litters and bite the riders. The Egyptians say in their
histories that in the days of Pharaoh the Jifar was built over
everywhere with towns." (Is., 52 ; I. H., 103 ; copied by Yak.
ii., 90 ; Mar. i., 258.)
2. JUND AL URDUNN (the Jordan Province). Subordinate to
this is the District of the Ghaur, or cleft of the Jordan River, and
the country of the Dead Sea. Of the Jordan Province the capital
is Tabariyyah, Tiberias. Ibn al Fakih writes :
"Of its districts (Kurah) are Tabariyyah, As Samirah (Samaria),
which is Nabulus, Baisan, Fahl (Pella) Jarash, 'Akka (Acre), Al
Kadas (Kadesh Naphthali), and Sur (Tyre)." (I. F., 116; copied
by Id., 21 ; and others.)
The Ghaur (the cleft of the Lower Jordan). According to
Ya'kubi this is : " An outlying district of the Damascus Province.
Its capital is Riha (Jericho)." (Yb., 113.;
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 31
"The Ghaur," says Istakhri-Ibn-Haukal, "is the -country of
Lot's people, and of the Stinking Lake (Dead Sea). All the rest
of Filastin is higher than this part, and its waters flow down into
it. The Ghaur begins at the Lake of Tiberias, and going by
Baisan extends past Zughar and Riha down to the Dead Sea.
The word Ghaur means 'a cleft between mountains,' cutting
down into the earth. There are all along its course palm-trees,
meadows, springs and streams. No snow that falls ever lies here.
The Ghaur, as far south as Baisan, belongs to the Urdunn
province, but below this it belongs to Filastin. This same deep
valley extends still further south, and at length reaches Ailah."
(Is., 56, 58 ; I. H., in, 113; copied by A. F., 226.)
Idrisi writes :
" Al Ghaur includes the Diyar Kaum Lut (the country of Lot's
people) and the Stinking Sea, being all the land from Zughar up
to Baisan and Tabariyyah. The Ghaur (cleft) is so called because
it is a valley between two ranges of hills. All the waters of Syria
descend into it, and are collected there, forming one mighty stream
(the Jordan), whose origin is in the Lake of Tiberias, near the
city of Tabariyyah.
"The other rivers of Syria flow into the Jordan, such as the
Nahr al Yarmuk (Hieromax), the streams of Baisan, and those
which flow from the district of Maab, and the mountains of the
Holy City, and the mountains of Abraham's Sepulchre (Hebron)
peace be on him as also what waters come down from Nabulus.
All these are collected together into the Ghaur, and flow thence
into the Lake of Zughar, the Dead Sea.
" Ariha (Jericho), with 'Amta and Baisan are the finest of the
cities of the valley of the Ghaur. The principal crop of the
Ghaur is indigo. Its inhabitants are brown-skinned, and some of
them even are almost black." (Id., 3.)
" There are many Ghaurs," says Yakut, " for Ghaur means
1 crevasse.' The Ghaur of the Jordan lies between Jerusalem and
1 )amascus. It is three days' journey in length, and less than half
a day across. In it runs the Jordan. The Lake of Tabariyyah
lies at its upper end, the Dead Sea at its lower. Its principal
town is Baisan, which is on its edge. It is a low-lying and very
32 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
hot country. What they grow most here is sugar-cane.* Of its
towns is Ariha (Jericho), the city of the giants. At the western
(or southern) end of the Ghaur, is the Stinking Sea, and at its
eastern (or northern) end is the Sea of Tiberias." (Yak., iii.,
823 ; Mar. ii., 322.)
" To the Jordan province," says Yakut, " belong the Kurahs of
Tabariyyah, Baisan, Bait Ras, Jadar, Saffuriyyah (Sepphoris), Sur
(Tyre), 'Akkah, and others. Baisan, Afik, Jarash, Bait Ras, Al
Jaulan, 'Akkah, Sur, and Saffuriyyah, were all taken during the
first conquest of the Arab armies." (Yak., i., 201.)
3. JUND DIMASHK. Subordinate to the Damascus Province
were the districts of the great plain of the Ghutah (or Ghautah)
round the city, and most of the districts to the south, which lay
east of the Jordan Cleft and the Dead Sea.
"Of the Damascus Province," writes Ya'kubi, "are (the eastern
lands of) the Ghaur, the Hauran, and the Bathaniyyah. The
outlying districts are the Balka, (the southern portion of) the
Ghaur, and Al Jibal." (Yb ,113.)
Ibn al Fakih states that :
'Of the Kurahs of the Damascus Province are Iklirn Sanir,
Kurah Jubail, the districts of Bairut, Saida, Bathaniyyah, Hauran,
Jaulan ; also the outlying parts of the Balka, and the various dis-
tricts of the Ghaur. Further, Kurah Maab, and Jibal ash Sharah,
Busra, 'Amman, Al Jabiyah, and Al Kariyatain. Also the dis-
tricts of Al Hulah and Al Bika'. The coast towns of Damascus
are Saida (Sidon), Bairut, Atrabulus (Tripoli), 'Arkah, and Sur
(Tyre). Of the last, Tyre, the mosque belongs to Damascus, but
the Kharaj (or land tax) to the Jordan province." (I. F., 105,
writing in the year 903.)
" Eastwards of the Urdunn Province (says Idrisi) lies the
Damascus province. Of its Kurahs are, the Plain of the Ghautah
round Damascus, the land of Ba'albakk, Al Bika' (Ccelo Syria),
Iklim Lubnan (the Lebanon), Kurah Juniyyah, and the Hulah,
the districts of Atrabulus, Jubail, Bairut, Saida ; the Bathaniyyah
district, the Hauran, the Jaulan, the outlying country of Al
Balka, Kurah Jibrin of the Ghaur, the districts of Maab,
* This was in the thirteenth century.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 33
'Amman, and Ash Sharah, with the land round Busra and Al
Jabiyyah.
" Eastward of the Damascus Province lies the (Syrian) desert,
and south of it is the Ard as Samawah (the Great Desert of
Arabia), and the Ard 'Ad (the country of the ancient 'Adites). To
the north lie the 'Awasim and Kinnasrin Provinces." (Id, 21;
repeated from I. Kh., 72.)
Al Ghutah (or Al Ghautah), " the Garden I,and," is the district
immediately surrounding the city of Damascus. In Ya'kubi's time,
at the close of the ninth century, it was still peopled by various
tribes of the ancient Ghassanide race, whose kings had ruled in
these countries before the Arab conquest. (Yb., 113.)
" The Ghutah," says Mukaddasi, " is a day's journey (or about
thirty miles across each way), and beautiful beyond all description."
(Muk., 1 60.)
" The Plain of the Ghutah," according to Yakut, writing in the
thirteenth century, "is eighteen miles round, and is surrounded
on all sides by high mountains, more especially to the north. It
is watered by many rivers which irrigate its fields and gardens.
The overflow of these goes into a lake (to the east of Damascus)
and into the swamps. Water is found everywhere, and no place
is pleasanter. It is one of the four paradises of the earth.''
(Yak., iii. 825 ; Mar., ii. 324.)
Hauran (Auranitis) and Al Bathaniyyah (Bathanea). Ya'kubi,
in 891, states :
"The Hauran district has for its capital Busra." (Yb., 113.)
Istakhri and Ibn Haukal in the tenth century write :
" The Hauran and Al Bathaniyyah are two great districts of the
Damascus Province. Their fields are rain-watered. The frontiers
of these two districts extend down to Nimrin, which is on the
Balka district, .and 'Amman. Of this we have it noted in the
books of history that Nimra is of the best of the waters of the Tank
called the Haud, which last lay between Busra and Amman."
(Is, 65; I.H., 124.)
There is here doubtless an allusion derived possibly from a
Jewish source to the " waters of Nimrim " of Isaiah xv. 6, and to
the " Nimrah " of Numbers xxxii. 3. The Hand, or " Tank," is that
3
34 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
mentioned in a Tradition of the Prophet as having existed of old
in these parts. Its waters, it is said, were whiter than milk and
sweeter than honey. The name Nimrin, it should be noted, is of
frequent occurrence in the Trans-Jordan district.
The Hauran is mentioned by Yakut (thirteenth century) as a
large district full of villages and very fertile, lying south of
Damascus. (Yak., ii. 358 ; Mar., i. 328.)
From the Hauran and Bathaniyyah into Damascus is two days'
march. (Is., I.H., Yak., Muk.)
"Of Al Bathaniyyah, the capital is Adra'ah." (Yb., 113.)
"Al Bathaniyyah," says Yakut, "or Al Bathanah, is a district
near Damascus. Al Bathanah is said to be a village lying be-
tween Damascus and Adra'ah, from which Job came." (Yak., i.
493 ; Mar., i. 126).
Al Jaulan (Gaulonitis). Ya'kubi, in 891, writes :
"Of Al Jaulan, the capital is Baniyas." (Yb., 114.)
" The Jaulan district," writes Mukaddasi, " supplies Damascus
with the most part of its provisions." (Muk., 160.)
" Al Jaulan," says Yakut, " is a district in the Hauran, and of
the Damascus Province. Al Jaulan is also said to be the name of
a mountain called more exactly Harith al Jaulan ; others say
Harith is the name for the summit of the mountain only." (Yak.,
ii. 159; Mar., i. 273.)
Al Jaidfir (Itursea). Yakut, in the thirteenth century,
states :
" Al Jaidtir is a district belonging to the Damascus Province,
and lying to the north of the Hauran. It is said the Jaidur and
the Jaulan form but one Kurah (or district)." (Yak., ii. 173 :
Mar., i. 277.)
Al Hulah. Mukaddasi writes :
" The province of the Hulah (round the waters of Meron) pro-
duces much cotton and rice ; it is low-lying, and has numerous
streams. - ; (Muk., 160.)
"Al Hulah," says Yakut, "is a district lying between Baniyas
and Sur (Tyre), but belonging to Damascus. It has many
villages." (Yak., ii. 366 ; Mar., i. 330.)
Al Balka (Penea). According to Ya'kitbi :
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 35
" Al Balka is one of the outlying districts of the Damascus
Province. Its capital is 'Amman." (Yb., 113.)
It is mentioned by Yakut as possessing many villages, and is
noted for its wheat-crops. (Yak., i. 728; Mar., i. 171.) From
the Balka into Jerusalem is two days' march. (Is., I.H., Id.)
Ash Sharah. Ya'kubi says :
" Of the district of Ash Sharah (the mountains of Moab) the
capital is Adhruh." (Yb., 114.)
" This district," says Istakhri in the tenth century, " is extremely
fertile and rich, only the Bedawin Arabs have the upper hand
here, and so ruin all." (Is., 57 ; I.H., 113.)
" Ash Sharah," writes Idrisi, " is a fine province, whose capital
is Adhruh. Both the Sharah and Jibal districts are extremely
fertile, producing quantities of olive-trees, and almonds, figs,
grapes, and pomegranates. The inhabitants are mostly of the
Kaisite tribes." (Id., 5.)
Ash Sharah, according to Y'akut, is the mountainous country
through which the Hajj road from Damascus passes. (Yak., iii.
270 ; Mar., ii. 100.)
From Jabal ash Sharah to Zughar is one day's march. (Is.,
l.H.) Down to the limit of Ash Sharah is also one day's march
(Is., I.H.), while to Zughar, and thence to the further limit of the
Jabal ash Sharah, is two days' march, according to Idrisi.
It will be noted that the district of Ash Sharah is sometimes
also counted as forming part of the Filastin Province. (See above,
p. 28.)
Al Jibal (Gebalene). According to Ya'kubi :
"Al Jibal is one of the outlying districts of the Damascus
Province. Its capital is 'Arandal." (Yb., 114.)
"Jibal," says Idrisi, " is a fine province, the capital of which is
called Darab." (Id., 5.)
The reading of this last name is uncertain; in the MSS. of
Istakhri and Ibn Haukal the name is variously given as Ruwat,
Ruwath, and Ruwad. (Is., 57 ; I.H., 113.)
4. JUND HIMS (the Emessa Province). Mukaddasi writes :
"Its capital bears the same name. Among its cities are
Salamiyyah, Tadmur (Palmyra), Al Khunasirah, Kafar Tab, Al
32
36 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Ladhikiyyah (I^aodicea), Jabalah (Byblos), Antarsus (Tortosa),
Bulunyas and Hisn al Khawabi." (Muk., 154. Given in much
the same words by I.H , ITO.)
The Hims Jund, as before noted (p. 25), originally comprised
all the country to the north of Damascus, which afterwards was
subdivided among the Junds of Kinnasrin and 'Awasim, and the
Thughur, or Frontier Fortresses.
The southern boundary line of the Hims Province, according
to Yakut, lay immediately to the south of Karah, while its northern
limit lay beyond the village of Al Karashiyyah. Eastward the
Hims Province included the village Al Kariyatain and Palmyra
(see Part II., under these names).
5. JUND KINNASRIN. The Kinnasrin Jund, after Harun ar
Rashid's time, when the 'Awasim had been formed into a separate
province, was circumscribed to the country round Kinnasrin and
Aleppo, with the two Ma'arrahs, and the Sarmin territory.
6. JUND AL ' AWASIM (or of the Strongholds). Ibn al Fakih
writes :
" In the days of the Khalifs 'Omar and 'Othman the Muslim
frontier fortresses lay round Antakiyyah (Antioch), and the
districts which later Ar Rashid formed into the Jund of the
'Awasim. These are Kurah Kurus, Al Jumah, Manbij, Antakiyyah
Tuzin, Balis, and Rusafah-Hisham. What lands lay beyond, the
Muslims made their raids into, and these the Greeks raided like-
wise. Between Al Iskandariyyah and Tarsus were fortresses and
magazines belonging to the Greeks." (I. F., in.)
" The Khalif ar Rashid made Manbij the capital of the 'Awasim
Jund ; which further comprised the districts of Manbij, Duluk,
Ra'ban, Kurus, Antakiyyah and Tizin (or Tuzin), with the inter-
vening places." (Bil., 132; Yak., iii. 742.)
Abu-1 Fida (1321), a late authority, mentions Antakiyyah as the
capital of the 'Awasim, and says the province originally included
the districts of Shaizar, Afamiyyah and adjacent territories ; also
the Lebanon region as far as the region of Al Kastal, lying between
Hims and Damascus. (A. F., 233.)
Yakut, writing a century earlier, after quoting Biladhuri (as
above), adds, the 'Awasim were all the Strongholds lying between
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 37
lialab and Antakiyyah. Some counted Aleppo as included among
thoc, while others gave it the Kinnasrin Jund. The ' Awasim
territory is for the most part mountainous, and both Al Massissah
and Tarsus have often been included in this province. Manbij
was its early capital, and afterwards Antakiyyah. (Yak., iii. 742 ;
Mar., ii. 287.)
7. ATH THUGHR (or the Frontier Fortresses).
" These," writes Yakut, " lie along the northern frontier between
Syria and the Greek country. It was here the Muslims lived in
garrison, who volunteered for the guarding of the frontiers ; as
likewise some lay encamped on the coast to protect the land from
the incursions of the Greeks in their ships. Such ' fortresses ' are
Tarsus, Adhanah (Adana), and Al Massissah (Mopsuestia), also
those in the Halab and the 'Awasim territories. This district of the
Thughur has no capital, all the towns are of about equal size, and
each is the chief town of its own district. Of the Thughur are
the following : Bayyas, whence to Al Iskandariyyah is one march ;
and from Bayyas to Al Massissah is two marches. 'Ain Zarbah
and Adhanah both lie one march from Al Massissah. From
Adhanah to Tarsus is one day ; Tarsus to Al Jauzat is two days ;
Tarsus to Aulas on the sea is two days ; Bayyas to Al Kanisah as
Sauda is less than one day ; and Bayyas to Al Haruniyyah is the
same ; Al Haruniyyah to Mar'ash, a fortress of the Mesopotamian
district, is less than a day. Antakiyyah and Baghras are celebrated
towns of the Thughur. In the days of the Khalif 'Omar, and for
some time afterwards, the frontier fortresses lay north of Antioch
and its towns, and this district came afterwards to be called the
'Awasim. Between Iskandariyyah and Tarsus were many fortresses
belonging to the Greeks, similar to those which at the present day
belong to the Muslims. The Muslims in those early days blocked
the Darb (Pass of) Baghras. This was first accomplished by
Maisarah ibn Masruk, of the family of 'Abbas, who was despatched
by Abu 'Ubaidah (in the days of the early conquest), as some say ;
others say this blocking of the pass was done by 'Umair ibn Sa'ad
al 'Ansari ; others, that it was only completed when the Khalif
Mu'awiyah raided against 'Ammuriyyah (Armoricum) in the year
25 (646).
38 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" The Khalif Mu'awiyah raided again in the year 31 also, setting
out from near Al Massissah and penetrating as far as Darawaliyah.
On his return he destroyed all the fortresses belonging to the
Greeks between this place and Antakiyyah. After the first con-
quest Tarsus, Adhanah, and Al Massissah, with the other for-
tresses adjoining, did not cease to remain in Muslim hands till
they fell to the Greeks, after the battle of Magharat al Kuhl, in
the year 349 (960), when the Greek armies defeated Saif ad Daulah
and drove him back on Halab. Then in 351 the Greeks came
down against Halab also, and Saif ad Daulah, with the other Turk
Amirs in Syria, lost all power, and retired to Miyafarikin across
the Euphrates. Al Massissah and Tarsus were then refortified by
the Greeks, as also all the other frontier fortresses in their hands.
This was in the year 354 (965), and Tarsus, with the rest, remain
in their hands to the present day (thirteenth century), and are
governed by Leo the King of the Armenians." (Yak, i. 927 ;
Mar., i. 228 )
" The Thughur," says Dimashki, "are divided into two sections :
the Thughur of Syria and the Thughur of Mesopotamia. These
are divided each from the other by the Jabal al Lukkam.
"The Mesopotamia!! fortresses are Malatiyyah which the
Greeks call Maltaya, and it lies a mile from the Euphrates ;
Kamakh, to the west of the Euphrates ; Shamshat, also west of the
Euphrates ; Al Birah, east of the Euphrates ; Hisn Mansur; Kala'at
ar Rum, west of the Euphrates ; Hadath al Hamra ; Mar'ash, first
built by Khalid ibn al Walid, rebuilt by the Khalif Marwan ibn al
Hakim, and afterwards again by the Khalif al Mansur.
"The Syrian fortresses are Tarsus, Adhanah, Al Massissah, and
Haruniyyah, built by Harun ar Rashid, in the early days of his
father's Khalifate. Also Sis, called Sisah ; when the Armenians
took it they made it the capital of their kingdom (of Little Arme-
nia) ; Ayas, called also Ayagh this last is the port of Sis on the
sea." (Dim., 214.)
Such were the Junds, or military districts, of Syria, down to
the tenth century of our era. Already, however, and apparently
even before that epoch, the system, being no longer required for
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 39
the cantonment of troops, had begun to fall into disorganiza-
tion.
Mukaddasi in 985 describes Syria as divided into six districts,
which differ in some minor points from the original Junds. The
difference, however, is more apparent than real. Further, some of
the names in Mukaddasi's lists would appear to have been trans-
posed by the copyists. Mukaddasi's six districts are :
" i. The District of Kinnasrm. Its capital is Halab (Aleppo),
and among its cities are Antakiyyah (Antioch), Balis, As-Suwai-
diyyah, Sumaisat (Samasata), Manbij, Bayyas, At-Tinah, Kinnasrin,
Mar'ash, Iskandarunah, *Lajjun, *Rafaniyyah, *Jusiyah, *Hamah,
*Shaizar, *Wadi-Butnan, Ma'arrah-an-Nu'man, Ma'arrah-Kinnas-
rin.
" 2. The District of Uims (mesa).Its capital bears the same
name. Among its cities are : Salamiyyah, Tadmur (Palmyra),
Al-Khunasirah, Kafar-Tab, Al-Ladhikiyyah, Jabalah, Antarsus,
Bulunyas, Hisn al Khawabi.
" 3. The District of Dimashk (Damascus). Its capital is of the
same name. Among its cities are : Baniyas, Darayya, Saida (Sidon),
Bairut, Atrabulus (Tripoli), 'Arkah, and the district of the Bika', of
which the chief city is Ba'albakk, and to which appertain the
towns of Kamid, 'Arjamush, and Az-Zabadani.
" The province of Damascus includes six districts, namely, the
Ghutah, Hauran, the Bathaniyyah, the Jaulan, the Bika', and the
Hiilah.
"4. The District of Al-Urdunn (the Jordan). Its capital is
Tabariyyah (Tiberias). Among its towns are : Kadas, Stir (Tyre),
'Akka (Acre), Al-Faradhiyyah, Al-I^jjun, Kabtil, Baisan, and
Adhri'ah.
" 5. The District of Filastm (Palestine). \te capital is Ar-
Ramlah. Among its cities are : Bait-al-Makdis (Jerusalem), Bait
Jibril, Ghazzah (Gaza), Maimas, 'Askalan (Ascalon), Yafah
(Joppa), Arsuf, Kaisariyyah (Csesarea), Nabulus (Shechem), Ariha
(Jericho), and 'Amman.
" 6. The District of Ash-Sharah, and for its capital we should
put Sughar. Its chief towns are : Maab, 'Ainuna, Mu'an, Tabtik,
Adhruh, Wailah, and Madyan." (Muk., 156.)
4 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
In the Kinnasrin district the names marked with an asterisk
(*) are in another list given by Mukaddasi (Muk., 54) assigned to
the Hims Province. Even thus, however, the lists are a good
deal in confusion, as may be seen by a reference to the map ; for
while Rafaniyyah, and Jusiyah may very rightly be assigned to
the Hims district, Al Khunasirah, and Kafar Tab, given to Hims
in the second (*) list, in reality lie far to the north of the boundary
line.
Mukaddasi further places Adhri'ah, generally noted as the
capital of the Bathaniyyah district (a dependency of the Damascus
Province), among the towns of the Urdunn Province. The
boundary line between the Damascus and Jordan Provinces appears
to have been somewhat ill-defined, and the lands lying immediately
to the east of the Jordan Cleft were at times counted as of the
one province and at times of the other.
This system of military Junds received its final death-blow in
the twelfth century, on the coming of the Crusaders and the in-
stitution of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem with the baronies and
counties dependent thereon. After Saladin and his successors
had expelled the Christians, and re-established the Muslim do-
minion, Syria and Palestine nominally belonged to the ruler of
Egypt, but in point of fact was divided up among a number of
minor Sultans, the descendants of Saladin and his brothers.
Dimashki, writing in 1300, states that since the rise of the Turk
power (meaning the house of Saladin), Syria had been divided
into nine Kingdoms (Mamfak&t). The exact limits of each
are not easy to define, for the accidents of war and of dis-
puted succession among Saladin's descendants rendered these
" Kingdoms " far from stable. The list of the nine kingdoms,
however, is as follows, as given by Dimashki :
i. The Kingdom of Damascus, the largest in point of size and
the most influential, since Damascus was still the capital of
Syria.
" It includes," says Dimashki, " ninety districts (Iklim)." Many
of them he enumerates. It will be sufficient, however, to state
that in the Damascus kingdom were included the lands of the
Ghautah Plain in all its length and breadth ; the Lebanon moun-
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 41
tains, with the plain of Coelo-Syria and Ba'albakk ; the- \V;':di
Barada, and northward along the Hims Road the country as
far as Kara ; the districts of Laja (Trachonitis), Jaulan, Hauran and
Bathaniyyah : and the Balka. Further, to Damascus at one time
belonged Jerusalem, and Ar Ramlah with its territories, also
Nal mlus, the whole of the Ghaur of the Jordan, upper, middle,
and lower ; Hebron ; with all the coast towns, such as 'Askalan,
Kaisariyyah, Yafa, 'Akka, Saida, Sur, and Bairut. (Dim., 198-202.)
2. South of this lay the Kingdom of Ghazzah (Gaza), the capital
of which was anciently called Ghazzah Hashim. " It is a city so
rich in trees as to be like a cloth of brocade spread out on the
sand. To the Ghazzah Kingdom at times were counted 'Askalan,
which belonged to the Franks, and which the Muslims took and
destroyed; Ycifa (Jaffa), Kaisariyyah, Arsuf, Ad Darun, and Al
'Arish."
" Of towns lying between the coast and the mountains belonging
at times to Ghaz/ah are : Tall Himar, Tall as Safiyah, Karatayya,
Bait Jibrail, Madinah Khalil (Hebron), Bait al Mukaddas (Jeru-
salem). Each of these has a separate governor." (Dim., 213.)
3. The Kingdom of Karak. " Here are Karak and Shaubak. To
it belong Ma'an, the village of Mutah, Al Lajjun, Al Hisa, Al
Azrak, As Salt, Wadi Musa, the territory of Madyan, Kulzum,
Ar Rayyan ; also in the Ghaur, Az Zarka and Al Azrak ; Al Jifar,
At Tih (the Desert of the Wanderings), with 'Amman, of which
only the ruins remain ; and the territory of Al Balka. The Iklim
Al Jibal is also included in the Karak kingdom ; its chief town
is Ash Sharah, and the city of Kab, which lies twelve miles from
it." (Dim, 213.)
4. The Kingdom of Safad. " Its capital is Safad. To it belong
Marj 'Ayyun (Ijon), Al Lajjun (Legio, Megiddo), to which belongs
Al 'Ashir and Al Hawa, Jinin (Ginaea), with 'Akka, Sur (Tyre)
and Saida (Sidon)." (Dim, 210-212.)
5. The Kingdom of Tarabulus. where are the castles of the
sect of the Assassins.
6. The Kingdom of Hims, anciently the Hims Jund. " Hims
is the capital, and the seat of government. It is the smallest of
the Turkish Governments of Syria ; but of its dependencies are
42 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Shamsin, Shumaimis, and'thecity of Salamiyyah with four districts."
(Dim., 202.)
7. The Kingdom of If amah. " Hamah is the capital ; and of
its districts are : Barin, a strong fortress ; also Salamiyyah on the
border of the desert (or else this belongs to Hims)." (Dim.,
206.)
8. The Kingdom of Halab (Aleppo). " Halab is the capital.
Besides the 'Awasim district, Halab possesses the following : Al
Khunasirah, on the border of the desert ; and Jabal Bani-1 Ka'ku,
which used to be called Kasrain ath Thaniyah ; and Kinnasrin,
which was the ancient capital prior to Halab. This last is an
ancient Roman city, and its name of old was Suma.
" Among other places are Manbij, on the Euphrates, built by
one of the Chosroes, and called Manbih, meaning ' most excellent.'
In its dependencies is Kala'ah Najm, called also Jisr Manbij.
Tall Bashir, by which runs the river As Sajur, down from 'Ain Tab.
Kala'ah ar Rum, where the Khalifah of Armenia and the Patriarch
dwell. Also Yaghra, situated on a fresh-water lake formed by the
Nahr al 'Aswad, and lying between the lake and Baghras and
Antakiyyah. Haruniyyah, built by Harun ar Rashid, and many
other places. In all, there are sixty districts belonging to Aleppo,
each with gardens and lands adjoining." (Dim., 202-206.)
9. The Kingdom of Rum. " North of the Kingdom of Aleppo
lies the kingdom governed by the Tartars, the Armenians, and
the Greeks. This in reality is separate from Syria, and is called
the Kingdom of Rum." (Dim., 192.)
The author of the Muthir, writing in the year 1351, gives the
following as the political divisions of Syria at his date. He has
been copied verbatim by Suyuti, and other later writers :
"The first town of Syria is Balis, and the last Al Arish, of
Egypt. Syria is divided into five districts, namely :
" i. Filastin, whose capital is Ilaya (^Elia, Jerusalem), eighteen
miles from Ar-Ramlah, which is the Holy City, the metropolis
of David and Solomon. Of its towns are Ascalon, Hebron,
Sibastiyah, and Nabulus.
"2. Hauran, whose capital is Tiberias, with its lake, whereof
mention occurs in the traditions anent Gog and Magog. It is
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 43
said that at the time of the birth of the Prophet to whom Allah
give blessing and peace ! the lake overflowed. Of its territories
are those of the Ghaur, of the Yarmilk (Hieromax), and of Baisan
(Bethshean, Scythopolis), which is the town of whose palm-trees
the Antichrist (Ad Dajjal) will inquire. Also Al Urdunn (the
Jordan), more often called Ash Shari'ah.
" 3. The Ghutah. Its capital is Damascus ; Tripoli is on its
coast.
"4. Hims (Emessa). The name of the province, and of its
chief town. Of its dependencies is the city of Salamaniyah
(Salaminias).
"5. Kinnasrin. Its chief town is Aleppo, and of its depen-
dencies are Sarmin and Antioch." (Muth. I., in S., vol. xix. of
J.R.A.S., p. 296.)
In the beginning of the fifteenth century the possession of Syria
was wrested from the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt by the Ottoman
Turks of Constantinople. The Mamluks were defeated in a great
battle, by Sultan Selim, in the plains to the north of Aleppo (1518),
and Syria became a province of the Turkish Empire.
TRIBUTE AND TAXES.
The Rtvenues of Syria. Several statements have come down to
us of the revenues of the districts of Ash Sham, during the period
immediately preceding the Crusades, when that province formed
an integral portion of the Muslim Empire.
The sums are reckoned in Dinars and Dirhams, the standard
gold and silver coins instituted by the Omayyad Khalif 'Abd al
Malik, about the year 72 (691). The names Dinar and Dirham
the Arabs borrowed from denarius and drachma, denarius being
the name of the silver coin among the Romans, which the Greeks
termed the drachma. In passing to the Arabs, however, denarius,
or Dinar, came to be the name of their gold coin, worth, in the
ninth and tenth centuries, something under ten shillings. It
weighs rather over 59 \ grains Troy. The drachma, or Dirham,
continued the name of the silver coin with the Muslims, and
during the same period was exchanged at the rate of about fifteen
Dirhams to the gold Dinar. The Dirham weighs about 47 \ grains
44 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Troy, and, at the ratio of gold and silver of those early days, was
worth about eightpence.
To form, however, a just idea of what the sums named in the
following lists represent in the currency of the present day, some
account must be taken of the depreciation of the purchasing power
of gold and silver, since the discovery of the New World in the
fifteenth century. Previous to that period, as it is generally
estimated, an ounce of gold commanded an amount of food and
labour which would be paid by three ounces at the present day.
Hence, though a Dinar be the equivalent in gold of about ten
shillings sterling, it was equal to at least thirty shillings in pur-
chasing power of the moneys of the present day. With regard to
the silver coin, the Dirhani, a like calculation has to be made,
which further has to be modified if we take into account the
great depreciation which silver has suffered in modern times.
An ounce of gold in Mukaddasi's days bought, approximately
speaking, 12 ounces of silver, while at the present day (1889) for
an ounce of gold we should get some 22 J ounces of silver.
Therefore, though the Dirham is worth intrinsically about eight-
pence, but would, as one fifteenth part of a gold Dinar, purchase
goods, at the present day, for the value of three times this amount
(i.e. two shillings) silver itself having now so much fallen in
value, the purchasing power of the Dirham's weight of silver is
reduced to almost half this latter amount, and in the currency of
to-day it may therefore be reckoned at somewhat over the shilling.
i. The earliest date of which we have details of the Revenues
of the Muslim Empire is the account preserved by Ibn Khaldun,
in the " Prolegomena " of his Universal History, a work written in
the fourteenth century A.D.
Ibn Khaldun says he copied the account from a work called
Jirah ad Daulah ("The Provision-Sack of the State"), and that it
represents the tribute paid during the reign of the Khalif al
Mamun. Internal evidence, however, makes it certain that the
statement refers to a date about half a century before the days of
Al Mamun; namely, to the Khalifate of his grandfather, Al
Mahdi that is, between 158 and 170 A.M., or about 780 A.D
The original Arabic will be found in the first volume of the Cairo
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 45
edition of the text of Ibn Khaldun, at page 150. The figures in
brackets are readings from other MSS. given by De Slane in his
translation of the " Prolegomena " (vol. i. 364) :
DinArs,
Kinnasrin Province . 400,000 (420,000), phis a thousand loads of olive-oil.
Hims Province . Wanting.
Damascus Province . 420,000.
Jordan Province . 97,000 (96,000).
\ 310,000, plus 300,000 Rails (Syrian pounds) of olive-
Filastin Province . j J
( oil.
Total : i 227,000 (1,246,000) Dinars, about ,620,000 sterling intrinsically,
or something short of two millions sterling of our money.
2. During the reign of Harun ar Rashid (A.H. 170 to 193)
about the year 800 A.D., a summary of the revenues of the Muslim
Empire was prepared for the use of the Wazir Yahya, the Barme-
cide. This summary is preserved in the Kitab al Wusard, " The
Book of the Wazirs," written by Al Jahshiyari ; it was brought to
the notice of the Seventh Orientalist Congress at Vienna by A.
von Kremer, and parts of the text were published by him in the
Transactions ( Verhandlungen^ Semitische Section. Wien^ 1888).
According to this work the following were the sums received by
the treasury during the reign of the great Khalif. They are
identical in most cases with Ibn Khaldun's list already given :
Dindrs.
Kinnasrin and Al 'Awasim Provinces . 470,000.
Hims Province. . j 3 20 ' 000 ' P lus '. camel-loads of
( raisins.
Damascus Province . . . . 420,000.
Jordan Province . . . 96,000.
Filastin Province . . . 310,000.
And in addition, from all the Syrian Junds together, 300,000 Ratls
(Syrian pounds) of raisins.
Total : 1,616,000 Dinars, or about 808,000 sterling, equivalent to nearly
two and a half millions of our present currency.
3. The next statement of the Revenues dates from a period half
* Az Zabib, probably a mistake in the MS. for Az Za*/, " olive-oil."
64 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
a century later than the foregoing. It is given by Kudamah in his
work called Kitab al Kharaj ("The Book of the Land Tax"),
written about the year 880 A.D., and purports to have been copied
from official lists of the year 204 A.H. (820). He gives the sums
in both Dinars and their equivalent Dirhams.
Extracts from Kudamah's text will be found in De Slane's paper
in the Journal Asiatique for the year 1862, from which the follow-
ing is copied :
Dtndrs, or in Dirhams.
Kinnasrin and 'Avvasim Provinces . . . 360,000 5,400,000
Hims Province ..... 118,000 1,770,000
Damascus Province ..... 120,000 i,8oo,oco
Jordan Province ..... 109,000 1,635,000
Filastin Province ..... 195,000 2,925,000
This makes a total of 902,000 Dinars, equivalent 10^451,000 intrinsically,
close on a million and a half in our present currency.
4. Ibn Khurdadbih, in his Book of the Roads and the Provinces,
gives the following sums. The text will be found on pages 7 1 and
73 of the extracts given by Barbier de Meynard in the Journal
Asiatique for the year 1865. Ibn Khurdadbih's figures are also
identical with those given by Ibn al Fakih, who wrote in 903.
(I. F., 103, 105, no, in, and 116.) Ibn Khurdadbih drew his
account from the official lists giving the revenues of the years
immediately preceding the writing of his book that is, about
A.I). 864:
Dindrs, or in Dirhams.
Kinnasrin and 'Awasim Provinces . . . 400,000 6,000,000
Hims Province . . 340,000 5, 100,000
Damascus Province . . . 400,000 6,000,000
Jordan Province . . . 350,000 3,250,000
Filastin Province . . . 500,000 7,500,000
The total is 1,990,000 Dinars, or about a million sterling, equivalent, how-
ever, to three millions of the present currency.
5. Ibn Khurdadbih, besides the figures just given, cites the
following on the authority of Al Isfahani, who flourished in the
earlier part of the ninth century A.D. :
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 47
Dtn&rs.
Hims Province . . . . . . . . . under 180,000
Damascus Province . . . ' ,, 140,000
Jordan Province . . . , . ,, 175,000
Filastin Province . . . . . . . ,, 175,000
This makes a total of only 670,000 Dinars, or ^335, ooo, equivalent to
about a million sterling of the present currency.
6. Yakubi, who wrote his Geography in 891, gives the following
list:
Dinars.
Hims Province, not including state farms . . , . . 220,000
Damascus Province, including state farms . . . . 300,000
Jordan Province, without the farms . . . . 100,000
Filastin Province, including farms . '.. , . . 300,000
Making a total of 920,000 Dinars, that is ^460,000 equivalent to rather
under a million and a half of our currency. (Yb. 112, 115, 116, and 117.)
7. According to Ibn Haukal (I. H., 128), the revenue of Syria
in A.H. 296 (908), and in A.H. 306 (918), after deduction of the
pay of the officers, was 39,000,000 Dirhams ; that is ^1,300,000,
equivalent to almost four millions of the present day.
8. Ibn al Fakih, and Ibn Khurdadbih's figures, are copied by
Mukaddasi, who, however, gives the following as the revenue in
his own days, A.D. 985. (Muk., 189.)
Dtn&rs.
Kinnasrln nnd Al 'Awasim . . ' . . ^. . 360,000
Damascus Province . . . . . . 400,000
Jordan Province . . ..... . . . 170,000
Filastin Province . . . . . . 259,000
This gives a total of 1,189,000 Dinars, or about ^600,000, equivalent to
; i, 800,000 of the present currency.
After Mukaddasi's days, apparently there is no known record of
the revenues of Syria. A century later came the Crusaders ; and
when, after another century, the country had reverted again to the
Muslims, what Saladin and his successors in Egypt drew from the
Syrian revenues is not recorded.
The following table gives a summary of the total revenues of
the Syrian Provinces at the various epochs indicated in the fore-
going paragraphs :
PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
1. Revenues of about the year 780 A. D.
2. Revenues of Haran ar Rashid's days (about 800) .
3. Revenues in the year 820 ....
4. Revenues about the year 864
5. Revenues in the eai'ly part of the ninth century .
6. Revenues in 891
7. Revenues in 908 and 918, 39,000,000 Dirhams
equal to .
8. Revenues in 985 .....
Dinars.
Equivalent
'" *
1,227,000
620,000
1,616,000
808,000
902,000
451,000
1,990,000
995,000
670,000
335,ooo
920,000
460,000
2,600.000
1,300,000
1,189,000
594,500
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN SYRIA.
The names of the Arab weights and measures are, many of
them, taken from the Greek or Latin, being those that were in use
in the Syrian provinces of the Byzantine Empire at the time of the
Muslim invasion. Thus the Mudt is the Roman corn-measure,
the Modius, generally rendered by bushel. The Ukiyyah is the
Greek Ouyy/'a, or ounce ; and the Rail (pronounced also Ritl and
Rutl) is, by inversion of the " 1 " and " r," the Greek Alrpa, or
litre. The Arabic Kirdt, which we have borrowed, and spell
" carat," was, in the first instance, an Arab corruption of the Greek
word Ktpariov, the fruit of the keratea, carob or locust tree, better
known as the St. John's bread.
The names of the Kafiz, Waibah, Sa\ Kailajah, and Habb (or
weight of a grain} are all of native Arab origin. The Kabb is
etymologically identical with the Hebrew word "cab," a measure
containing a quart and a third. In Greek, too, we find Kafe for
the name of a corn-measure ; and the Greeks are said to have
received the name from the East.
The Makktik is said to have been adopted from the Persians,
with whom it was the royal drinking-cup, in shape resembling a
boat ; and " Makkuk " is even at the present day in Persia the
name given to the weaver's shuttle, which has a boat-like form.
The Danik, which was the sixth part of either Dirham or Dinar,
is also a Persian word ; and Danak in that language signifies " a
grain."
* Intrinsically ; to be multiplied by three to obtain the value in coin of the
present day.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 49
The basis of the Arab measures of capacity is the a\ the corn-
measure of the days of the Prophet, which was ruled to contain
the equivalent of " four times the quantity of corn that fills the
two hands, that are neither large nor small, of a man."* Roughly
speaking, it may be taken as rather more than 5 pints ; and on
this estimate the following equivalents, in English measures, are
calculated. The Kist, which was half a Sd\ came from the
Greek 3'sffTqg, which represents the Roman sextarius.
As regards the system of weights, the unit is the silver Dirham
weight, equivalent to about 47! English grains. It must, how-
ever, be remembered that the Ratl (or pound-weight) is not only
a standard of weight, but also a measure of capacity ; for the
Arabs, like the Romans, calculated cubic measure by the weight
of a specific quantity of oil or wine. In the same double capacity,
the Kafiz is not only the corn-measure, but also the land-measure,
being the land that may be sown with that quantity of corn, and,
as such, counted as the tenth part of the Jarib, the normal square
measure for cultivated lands.
The unit of length was the Dhira\ or ell, which, however,
varied at different epochs. The Royal Ell (Dhtra? Mdltki] of the
tenth century measured about 18 inches in length ; while the
Workman's Ell, in use at a later date (fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries), measured about 2\ feet.
The Persian traveller Nasir-i-Khusrau, whose measurements are,
archaeologically, of great importance, makes use of two Persian
units of length namely, Gez and Ars/i. The latter is given as
the equivalent of the Arabic Dhira', ell or cubit ; while the Gez
is generally reckoned to be longer than the cubit, and is given in
the dictionaries as roughly equivalent to the English yard. A
careful comparison of the passages in which Nasir-i-Khusrau
employs these measures leads, however, to the conclusion that he
used the terms as synonymous,! and that both the Gez (ell) and
the Arsh (cubit) may be taken as measuring somewhat under
two English feet.
The Arab Mil^ or mile, was directly borrowed from the
* Vide Lane's Arabic Dictionary, s. v. SA\
f See Chapter III., description by Nasir-i-Khusrau of the Dome of the Rock.
4
50 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Byzantines ; it contained 4,000 DhinV, or ells, and may, therefore,
be reckoned at somewhat over 2,000 yards. Roughly speaking,
it is the geographical mile, or knot. Three Arab miles commonly
went to the Farsakh, a word borrowed by the Arabs from the
Persians, who wrote Farsang, from the Greek irapaadyyaz.
Throughout Syria, as in all other parts of the Muslim Empire,
there was a network of post-roads, with post-houses, where horses
were kept at the Government expense. The post-stage was called
by the Arabs Al Band. The institution is of very ancient date,
and the word used by the Arabs is probably a corruption of the
Latin Veredus "a post-horse." The length of the stage naturally
varied with the nature of the country to be traversed.
Mukaddasi writes as follows on the Measures and Weights of Syria
during his days namely, at the close of the tenth century A.D. :
" Measures of Capacity. The people of Ar Ramlah (the capital
of Palestine) make use of the Kafiz, the Waibah, the Makkuk,
and the Kailajah.
" The Kailajah (or gallon) contains about i \ Sa's.
" The Makkuk (3 gallons) equals 3 Kailajahs.
" The Waibah (6 gallons) is 2 Makkuks.
" The Kafiz (3 bushels) is 4 Waibahs.
" The people of Jerusalem are wont to make use of the Mudi
(2 bushels), w T hich contains two-thirds of a Kafiz; and of the
Kabb, which equals a quarter of the Mudi ; and they do not use
the Makkuk at all, except in the Government measurements.
" In 'Amman, the Mudi equals 6 Kailajahs (three-quarters of a
bushel) their Kafiz is the half of the Kailajah (or gallon) and
by this measure they sell their olives and dried figs.
" In Tyre, the Kafiz is the same as the Mudi of Jerusalem,
and the Kailajah here equals the Sa'.
" At Damascus, the Ghirarah contains i J Palestine Kafiz
(equivalent, therefore, to 4! bushels).
" Measures of Weight. In Syria, from Hims (Emessa) even to
(the country lying between Palestine and Egypt known as) Al
Jifar, the Ratls average 600 (Dirhams weight each) ; but some
more, some less. Of these the heaviest is the Ratl of Acre, and
the lightest that of Damascus.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 51
"The Ckiyyah (ounce) contains from 40 and odd up to 50
(Dirhams of weight), and every Ratl contains 12 tkiyyah, or
ounces (and is equivalent, therefore, to 6 Ibs.), except only at
Kinnasrin, where the Ratl is two-thirds of this (and contains only
4 Ibs.).
" The standard weight of the coin in Syria is very nearly every-
where the Dirham weight of 60 grains, and their grain (Habb) is
the grain of barley-corn.
" The Danik (which is the sixth of the Dirham) weighs
10 grains.
" The Dinar contains 24 Kirats ; and their Kirat is equivalent
to 3! barley-corns (each barley-corn weighing about seven-tenths
of a grain, English).
" The distance between the post-stations (the Barid) in Syria is
generally 6 miles." (Muk., 181, 182.)
Nasir-i-Khusrau notes 1047 A.D. that in the bazaars of
Aleppo the weight in use was the Dhahiri Ratl, which contains
480 Dirhams weight. (N. Kh., 2.) This was named after the
Egyptian Fatimite Khalif, Dhahir li Izazi Din Illah, and at this
rate was equivalent to about 3^ Ibs.
CHAPTER II.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE (continued}.
Rivers : The Jordan and its tributaries The rivers of the coast The rivers
of Damascus The Orontes. Rivers of the northern provinces.
Lakes : The Dead Sea The Lake of Tiberias The Hulah Damascus
Lakes Lake of Hims and of Afamiyyah Lakes of Antioch.
Mountains: Sinai Mount Hor The Mount of Olives Mountain-
chains of Palestine : Ebal and Gerizim, Jabal 'Amilah The Jaulan hills
Lebanon mountains Mountains round Damascus Hermon Jabal al
Lukkam.
RIVERS.
Nahr al Urdunn. The Jordan, in the earlier Arab chronicles,
is invariably given the name of Al Urdunn, a word corresponding
with the Hebrew Ha-Yarden (almost always written with the
article), meaning "the Descender."
Al Urdunn further gave the name to the Military Province
(Jund) of the Jordan. After the time of the Crusades the Jordan,
in the Arab histories, begins to be called Ash Shari'ah, "the
Watering-Place," the name by which it is known to the Bedawin
of the present day.
" Nahr al Urdunn," says Mukaddasi, " rises above Baniyas, and
descending, forms a Lake over against Kadas (called the Hulah
Lake) ; thence again descending to Tiberias, its waters spread
out and form the Lake bearing that name ; and hence, further
descending from the valley of the Ghaur, it falls into the Over-
whelming Lake (which is the Dead Sea). The river Jordan is not
navigable for boats."
Mukaddasi also speaks of the bridge over the Jordan south of
the lower end of the Lake of Tiberias, across which lies the road to
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 53
I )amascus, known at the present day as the Jisr al Majami'ah.
(Muk., 184, 161.)
Yakut, quoting from Ahmed Ibn at Tib as Sarakhsi (died
899 A.D.), says the Jordan is divided into the Greater (Urdunn al
Kabir)> which is the Jordan above Tiberias ; and the Lesser
( Urdunn as Saghir), which is the Jordan below the Sea of Galilee.
"The Jordan waters all the country of the Ghaur where the
sugar-canes are grown in the lands round Baisan, Karawa, Ariha
(Jericho), and Al 'Auja." Yakut refers also to the bridge below
the Lake of Tiberias, which he says " is finely built, and has more
than twenty arches. The Nahr Yarmuk (Hieromax) joins the
Jordan near here, coming down from the Bathaniyyah Province."
(Yak., i. 200.)
"Nahr al Urdunn (says Abu-1 Fida, writing in 1321) is the
river of the Ghaur called also Ash Shari'ah (the Watering-place).
Its source is in the streams that flow down from the Mount of
Snow (Hermon) into the Lake of Baniyas (Hulah). From this
lake the Shari'ah flows out, and passing, falls into the Lake of
Tiberias. From the Lake of Tiberias it passes ' onward going
south. The river Yarmuk joins the Shari'ah after it has left the
I^ike of Tiberias, and at a point between that lake and Al
Kusair. The Shari'ah, which is the Nahr Urdunn aforesaid,
flows thence southward in the midst of the Ghaur, passing by
Baisan, and on, south again, past Riha (Jericho) ; and again
southward, till it falls into the Stinking Lake, which is the Lake of
Zughar (or the Dead Sea)." (A. F., 48.)
"Nahr al Urdunn, or the Shari'ah," writes Dimashki, "is a
river with abundant water. It rises at Baniyas, and flows down
to the Hulah district, and forms the Lake of Kadas so called
after the Hebrew city (of Kadesh Naphthali), the remains of which
are on the hill above and Kadas was the name of the Hebrew
king of that country. Into this lake there fall many streams and
waters. Passing out thence, the Jordan traverses the district of
Al Khaitah, and comes to the Jisr Ya'kub, under the Kasj
Ya'kub, and reaching the Sea of Tiberias, falls into it. Leaving
this, it passes to the Ghaur. At the hot springs of Tabariyyah,
there flows out, very marvellous to see, hot salt-water."
54 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" From the hot springs, too, that rise at a village called Jadar
(Gadara (?), at present Umm Keis) and where there are waters
for healing every sort of disease that men suffer from there comes
down a great river (the Yarmuk) that joins the Jordan, after it has
left the Lake of Tiberias, at a place called Al Majami' in the
Ghaur. The two rivers then become one, and as they flow on,
their waters become even more abundant, for near Baisan many
springs join the Jordan ; and below this again other springs come
in, till at last the Jordan flows into the Lake of Zughar, which is
salt and stinking, and is called the Lake of Lot. The river flows
into it but does not flow out. The lake does not increase in
volume in winter for all the water that flows down to it ; neither
does the quantity of its waters decrease in summer. But the
Jordan flows into it night and day." (Dim., 107.)
Nahr al Yarmiik (the ancient Hieromax). "The river
Yarmuk," says Yakut, " is a Wadi in Syria, running into the
Ghaur. The waters fall into the river Jordan, and thence flow
down to the Stinking Lake (or Dead Sea). Here, on the Yarmuk,
was fought the great battle between the Muslims and the Greeks,
in the Khalif Abu Bakr's days. The field of battle was a Wadi
called Al Wakusah (the Place of Breaking-up). It lies in the
Hauran Province of Syria. The Muslims, in the days of Abu
Bakr, lay encamped on the Yarmuk when they marched to make
their raid against the Greeks. They fell on the idolaters, and
Khalid hastened on the people to the slaughter. And certain of
them pursued the enemy till they came to a high place that
overhung a ravine ; down into this the enemy fell, for they did
not see it, the day being misty, or, as some say, because it was
night-time. Those of the Greeks who fled and came up later did
not know what was happening to those in front ; and they fell
into the ravine also. It was impossible to count those of the
enemy who were slain, but by estimate 80,000 of the Greeks
perished. This ravine has been called Al Wakusah from that day
till now, because the Greek army was 'broken-up there.' When
the morning dawned, and no infidels were to be seen, the Muslims
imagined they had put themselves in ambush ; till at length they
gained knowledge of their state. Such as were left fled, the
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 55
Muslims following them and slaying them, until the Greek army
was completely routed." (Yak., iv. 893, 1015 ; Mar., iii. 272, 339.)
" Nahral Yarmuk (the river Hieromax)," says Dimashki, " flows
down from the Jabal Ar Rayyan." (Dim., no.)
Nahr az Zarka (the river Jabbok). " Nahr az Zarka (the Blue
River) flows down from the country of Hisban (Heshbon), and
joins the Jordan." (Dim., no.)
" It is a large river," says Yakut, " and it falls into the Ghaur.
It runs through green-clad places and many gorges, and it was the
land of the ancient Himyarite Tubba kings. In this country are
many wild animals and carnivorous beasts." (Yak., ii. 924.)
Nahral Maujib (the river Arnon). " This," says Idrisi, " is the
name of the great river, with a deep bed, shut in by two cliffs of
the mountain sides, which you pass through going from the dis-
trict of Ash Sharah to 'Amman. The road goes between these
two cliffs, which are not far apart, being distant so little space that
a man may talk to another across them. The cliffs overhang the
banks of the river, and though, as just said, you may hear a man
speak across from one to the other, you must descend six miles
and ascend six if you would get from the one cliff to that opposite."
(Id, 5.)
" Al Mujib, or Al Maujib," says Yakut, " is a place in Syria,
lying between Jerusalem and the Balka Province." (Yak., iv.
678 ; Mar., iii. 171.)
Nahr al 'Auja ("the Crooked River''), or Nahr Abi Fuirus
("the River of Peter's Father"). "This is a river," writes Yakut,
" running some twelve miles from Ar Ramlah towards the north.
It rises from springs in the mountains in the neighbourhood of
Nabulus, and falls into the sea between Arsuf and Yafa. Many
great battles have been fought on its banks, and when two armies
meet beside the Nahr Abi Futrus, it is always the army on the
eastern bank that is routed. Thus it was at the battle between
the Abbasides and Omayyads, in 132 (750), and at the battle
between the Tulunids and the Khalif al Mu'tadid, at the place
called At Tawahln (the Mills), on its banks." (Yak., iv. 131;
Mar., iii. 243.)
" Al 'Auja is the name of a river running between Arsuf and
56 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Ar Ramlah (and is the same as the Nahr Abi Futrus)." (Yak.,
iii. 744.)
"The Nahr Abi Futrus," says Abu-1 Fida, "is the river that
runs near Ar Ramlah in Filastin. In Muhallabi's work called
the 'Azizl, it is said to be the same as the Nahr al 'Auja (the
Crooked). It runs about twelve miles north of Ar Ramlah. They
say that when two armies meet on its banks, it is always the
western host that wins, while the eastern is put to the rout. Thus
the Khalif al Mu'tadid fled (884 A.D.) from the Khumaruwaih ibn
Ahmad ibn Tulun ; and the Fatimite Khalif of Egypt Al 'Aziz
conquered and took prisoner Haftakin the Turk (975 A.D.), the
latter being with his army on the eastern bank. The source of
the river is under Jabal al Khalil, opposite the ruined castle of
Majdaliyabah. Its course is from east to west, and it falls into
the Greek Sea to the south of the lowlands of Arsuf. From
its source to its mouth it is less than a day's journey in length."
(A. F., 48.)
Nahr Laitah (the Litany River), miscalled the Leontes, is
at the present day known as Al Kasimiyyah. It is mentioned by
Idrist in the twelfth century.
" The Nahr Laitah falls into the sea between Sur (Tyre) and
Sarafand. It rises in the mountains, and comes down here to the
sea." (Id., 12.)
" Nahr Laita," says Dimashki, " has its source in the lands of
Karak Nun (Noah's Stronghold). There, many springs and
streams come together, and the river flows along the base of the
Jabal Lubnan (Lebanon), passing Jabal Mashghara, and into the
same there flow many springs. Thence it passes Al Jarmak, and
afterwards Ash Shakif, a great and strong castle. Below this it
becomes a large river, and falls into the Mediterranean not far
from Tyre." (Dim., 107.)
Nahr al Kalb (the Dog River), the ancient Lycus, is men-
tioned by Yakut, who states that " it flows between Bairut and
Sidon, and is of the Frontier Strongholds, called Al 'Awasim."
(Yak., iv. 298, 843 ; Mar., ii. 250, 508.)
This is, however, a mistake, as the Dog River flows into the sea
north of Bairut.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 57
Nahr Ibrahim. " A river of the Syrian coast, with but a short
course. Its waters come down from the Lebanon mountains and
Kasruwan, and running down to the coast, fall into the Mediter-
ranean." (Dim., 107.)
Nahr al Abtar (" the Curtailed "). " A river," writes Dimashki,
" which flows into the sea between Bulunyas and Jabalah. It is so
called on account of its short course, and because its waters are not
used (for irrigation), and that, despite their abundance and rapidity,
there are no canals taken from this river. On an island in it are
the remains of a fortress called Buldah. It was one of the
strongest of places, but was dismantled by its garrison, and this by
reason of their quarrelling each with the other, which led to their
dispersion. This island is one of the most beautiful places to be
seen in this country ; one half of it is washed by the sea, and the
part, that is toward the mainland is surrounded by the waters of
the river. Thus half is on salt water, half on fresh, but to the
sight they both appear but one water, which surrounds the island
on all sides." (Dim., 209.)
The Sabbatical River. The source of this stream was visited
by Nasir-i-Khusrau in 1047. He writes :
" We went by the coast road from Hama southwards, and in
the mountains saw a spring which, they say, flows with water but
once a year, when the middle-day of the (lunar) month of Sha'aban
is past. It continues running for three days, after which it gives
out not a single drop of water more, until the next year. A great
many people visit this place in pilgrimage, seeking propitiation
whereby to approach God may He be praised and glorified !
and they have constructed here a building and a water-tank."
(N. Kh., 5.)
This account doubtless refers to the source of the Sabbatical
River of antiquity, visited by Titus (Josephus, Wars, vii., 5, i).
It is at the present day called Fawwarah ad Dair, " The Foun-
tain of the Convent," that is, of Mar Jirjis (St. George), the build-
ing spoken of by Nasir. Josephus asserts that the spring ceases
to flow on Saturdays. The Muslims of the present day say
Fridays.
Nahr Bar add. Barada, the ancient Abana, is the chief river
58 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
of Damascus. Some description of the network of streams
which water the plain of Damascus will be given in Chapter VI.
" Rivers occur in some numbers," writes Mukaddasi, " through-
out the province of Syria, and they flow for the most part into the
Mediterranean Sea all except the Barada, which, dividing below
the city of Damascus, waters the district. In its upper course, an
arm branching from the main stream encircles the northern part
of the city, and divides below into two branches, one of which
runs towards the desert and forms there a lake, while the other
descends till it joins the Jordan." (Muk., 184.)
"The Barada. also called Baradaya," according to Yakut, "is
the chief river of Damascus. There is another river, also, called
Banas, but the Barada is the main stream. It takes its rise in a
valley near a village called Kanwa of the district of Az Zabadani,
five leagues from Damascus and near Ba'albakk. From the springs
there, it flows down to Fijah, which is a village two leagues from
Damascus. Here another spring joins it, and their united waters
flow on to a village called Jumraya. When the stream of the
Barada approaches Damascus, many canals are led off it, for they
have built weirs which turn the water aside ; to the north are two
canals under Jabal Kasiyun, the upper called Nahr Yazid, and the
lower Thaura. The former was dug by the Khalif Yazid ibn
Mu'awiyah." (Yak., iv. 846; Mar., iii. 253.)
"The latter name is often incorrectly spelt Thaurah." (Yak.,
i. 938; Mar., i. 131.)
" The Nahr Yazid, going off at the village of Jumraya, takes a
moiety of the waters and flows under the foot of Jabal Kasiyun.
The Thaura bifurcates at the village of Dummar, and below this
again, to the south, there are led away the waters of the Banas.
After this the main stream of the Barada flows on towards the
city, and there is taken from it the canal called Nahr al Kanawat,
which is but a small stream. On reaching the city, the Nahr al
Kanawat divides into numerous water-channels (Kanawat} towards
the south, and flows through all the houses of the town. A great
canal, that already mentioned, the Banas, flows through the Castle
and the neighbouring houses in Damascus, and after dividing into
various water-channels, proceeds through the Ghautah, irrigating all
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. SQ
the fields beyond the gates called Bab as Saghir, and Bab ash
Sharki. The main stream of the Barada, after passing through
the city, flows also through the Ghautah, and loses itself in the
lake to the east. Coming down from the north, the waters of the
Thaura likewise fall into this lake, as also the Nahr al Yazid, which
waters all the gardens on the north of Damascus." (Yak., i. 556 ;
Mar., i. 141.)
The Orontes. This river was called by the Greeks "A/OS
Tora/xoc, from the old Syrian name of " Atzoio," meaning " The
Rapid." The Arabs corrupted this name into A I 'A si, or "The
Rebel River," calling it also Al Maklub, " The Overturned," be-
cause it flowed in a contrary direction to most other rivers, that is,
from the south to the north. The Crusaders, with their usual
haphazard method of identification, considered the Orontes to
represent the Biblical Pharphar, and refer to it in their Chronicles
under that name.
" Antakiyyah," says Idrisi, "lies on the river Al Maklub,
which is called also Al Urunt (Orontes). This river rises in the
territory of Damascus, at a place near where the desert road bifur-
cates. From thence the stream flows down and passes Hims ;
then traverses the two cities of Hainan and Shaizar and reaches
Antioch, where it flows round the northern side of the city, and,
turning south, falls into the sea to the south of As Suwaidiyyah."
(id., 23.)
According to Yakut, when the Orontes leaves the Lake of
Kadas, it is known as Al Mimas, or Al Maimas ; at Hamah and
Hims, it is called Al 'Asi, and near Antakiyyah it goes by the
name of Al Urunt or Al Urund. (Yak., i. 233, iii. 588 ; Mar., i.
51, ii. 226.)
"The river of Hamah," says Abu-1 Fida, "is also called
Al Urunt, or the Nahr al Maklub (The Overturned), on account
of its course from south to north ; or, again, it is called Al 'Asi
(The Rebel), for the reason that though most rivers water the
lands on their borders without the aid of the water-wheels, called
Duldb and Na'urah that is, merely by the flowing of the water
the river of Hamah will not irrigate the lands except by the aid of
these machines for raising its waters. The river runs in its entire
60 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
length from south to north. At its origin it is a small stream,
rising near a domain, about a day's journey to the north of Ba'al-
bakk, at a place called Ar Ras. It runs north from Ar Ras till it
reaches a place called Kami (Station of) al Hirmil, lying between
Jusiyah and Ar Ras. Here, where it passes through a valley, is
the main source of the river at a place called Magharat ar Rahib
('The Monk's Cave'); thence flowing northwards and passing
Jusiyah, it falls into the Lake of Kadas to the west of Hims.
From this lake the river flows out, passing Hims and on by Ar
Rastan to Hamah, thence by Shaizar to the Lake of Afamiyyah.
From the Lake of Afamiyyah it goes by Darkush to the Iron Bridge
(Aljisr al Hadid}. Bounding the river to the east hitherto, there
has been the Jabal Lukkam, but when it reaches the Iron Bridge
the mountains sink, and the river turns here and goes south and
westward, passing by the walls of Antakiyyah, after which it falls
into the Greek Sea at As Suwaidiyyah.
"There flow into the Orontes a number of streams, ist. A
river which rises under the city of Afamiyyah, and, flowing west-
wards, falls into the Lake of Afamiyyah, where its waters join
those of the Orontes.
" 2nd. A river rising about two miles to the north of Afamiyyah,
called An Nahr al Kabir ('The Great River'). It runs a short
distance, and then falls likewise into the Lake of Afamiyyah ; the
waters of these two leave the lake as the Orontes.
"3rd. An Nahr al Aswad, or (in Turkish) Kara Sou ('The
Black River '), which flows from the north, and passes under Dar-
bassak.
" 4th. Nahr Yaghra. This rises near the town of Yaghra, and,
after passing the same, falls into the Black River mentioned above,
and they together flow into the Lake of Antakiyyah.
" 5th. Nahr Ifrin, which comes from the country of the Greeks,
and flows by Ar Rawandan to the district of Al Jumah. After
passing Al Jumah, it flows on to the district called Al 'Umk
(' The Bottom '), and there joins the Black River ; these three,
namely, the Black River, the Nahr Yaghra, and the Nahr Ifrin,
become a single stream and fall into the Buhairah (or Lake of)
Antakiyyah, flowing out from which their waters become the ' Asi (or
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 61
Orontes) which comes down from Hamah above Antakiyyah and
to the east* of the city." (A. F., 49.)
"The Nahr 'Asi," says Dimashki, "which between Hamah and
Ar Rastan is called the Nahr Urunt, has its source at the villages
called Al Libwah and Ar Ras, near Ba'albakk, and thence flows
down to Hims. A great spring of water cornes down and joins it,
called 'Ain al Hirmil, above which is an Observatory of the ancient
Sabseans, which resembles the two Observatories to be seen at
Hims, called Al Maghzalani. The 'Asi flows on from here past
the walls of Hisn al Akrad, and its waters are quite clear, even like
tears, till they enter the Lake of Hims ; but on leaving this they
are troubled, like the waters of the Nile, and do not become clear
again till the river reaches the district called Ard ar Ruj.
Ultimately the river flows down past As Suwaidiyyah and out into
the sea." (Dim., 107, 207, 259.)
Nahr Kuwaik. The ancient Chalus, and the river of Aleppo.
"It rises," says Idrisi, "at a village called Sinab, sixteen miles
from Dabik. Thence to Halab is eighteen miles, after which it
passes to Kinnasrin in twenty miles, and on to Marj al Ahmar
(' the Red Meadow '), and below this is swallowed up after a twelve
miles' course in the marshes. From its source to its disappear-
ance in the marshes it is 42 mrles in length." (Id. 25.)
Yakut gives much the same information, only that he writes
the name of the village, where the Kuwaik rises, Sabtat or Sabtar,
adding that some place the source at Sabadir, six miles from
Dabik. He states the total length of the Kuwaik to be 48 miles.
" The waters are sweet, but in the summer-time it almost dries up.
After the winter rains, however, it becomes a fine stream, and the
poets of Aleppo compare it to Al Kauthar, the river of Paradise/
(Yak., iv. 206 ; Mar., ii. 462.)
"The Kawaik River, opposite Jabal Jaushan, near Halab, is
called Al 'Aujan." (Yak., iii. 744; Mar., ii. 288.)
Dimashki describes the Kuwaik in much the same terms. He
says : " The libertines of Halab surname the river Abu-1 Hasan,
'Father of the Beautiful.' It ultimately flows through the Marj al
Ahmar into the : wamp called Buhairah al Matkh (the Lake of
Mud)." (Dim., 202 )
* The MSS. read " west," in error.
62 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Nahr al Azrak ("the Blue River")." This," says Yakut, " is
a river of the Thughur (Frontier Fortresses) between Bahasna and
Hisn Mansur, towards Halab." (Yak., iv. 834 ; Mar., iii. 243.)
Nahr al Aswad(" the Black River "). " A river flowing near the
Nahr al Azrak, and in the territories of Al Massissah and Tarsus."
(Yak., iv. 834 ; Mar., iii. 243 ; see above, p. 60.)
Nahr 'Ifrin. " The name of a river in the territories of Al
Massissah, which runs in the Halab territory." (Yak., iii. 689 ;
Mar., ii. 264 ; see above, p. 60.)
Nahr adh Dhahab ("the River of Gold"). "The people of
Aleppo call the Wadi Butnan, which passes Buza'ah, by this name.
This valley is one of the wonders of the world for beauty. The
river flows down into a large swamp some two leagues long and
broad, where its waters dry up, and leave salt. This swamp
they call Al Jabbul, and the salt gathered here is exported to
all parts of Syria." (Yak., iv. 839 ; Mar., iii. 246.)
Nahr Hurith. "A river flowing out from the lake called
Buhairah al Hadath, near Mar'ash, and falling into the river
Jaihan." (Yak., iv. 838; Mar., iii. 246.)
Nahr Jaihan (the Pyramus). "The Jaihan is a river which
rises in the country of the Greeks. After passing down through
the city of Al Massissah, it runs by certain villages known by the
name of Al Mallun,* and then falls into the sea. It has on its
banks many hamlets with numerous water-courses." (Is., 63 ;
I.H., 122.)
"The Nahr Jaihan," says Abu-1 Fida, "is a river almost of
the size of the Euphrates. It passes through the land of Sis
(Cilicia, or Little Armenia), and the vulgar name it Jahan. It
flows from north to south between mountains in the Greek terri-
tories, till it passes to the north of Al Massissah, and then turning,
goes from the east westward, and falls into the Greek Sea not far
from the above-named city." (A.F., 50.)
" The beginning of its course," says Dimashki, " is near
Zabatrah. It runs under a huge rock. At its source is a church,
like the church on the Saihan, and its length is nearly equal to
that of the Saihan." (Dim., 107 ; also Yak., ii. 170, and
Mar., i. 267, who add nothing to the above.)
* The ancient Mallus, called in the Middle Ages Malo.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 63
Nahr Saihan (the Sarus). " The river Saihan is of less size than
the Jaihan. There is across it a most wonderful stone bridge of
extraordinary length. This river, too, rises in the land of the
Greeks." (Is., 64 ; I.H., 122 ; copied by A.F., 249.)
"The Saihan," writes Mas'udi, "according to tradition, is one
of the rivers whose source is in Paradise. It is the river of
Adanah, one of the Syrian Fortresses, and it flows into the Medi-
terranean. It rises three days' journey beyond Malatyah, and
Adanah is the only town on it belonging to the Muslims. It flows
between Tarsus and Al Massissah. Its sister river, the Jaihan,
has its sources at the 'Uyun Jaihan, three miles from the town of
Mar'ash, and flows likewise into the Mediterranean. The only
Muslim cities on its banks are Al Massissah and Kafarbayya."
(Mas., ii. 359.)
" The Nahr Saihan," says Dimashki, " has the commencement
of its course in the country of Malatyah, at a place where there is
a fortress. There is here a church in which is a picture of Paradise
and its inhabitants. The river runs down from thence, and its
course to where it flows into the Mediterranean is 730 (?) miles
in length." (Dim., 107.)
Abu-1 Fida describes the Saihan in much the same terms, and
xidds : " It passes through the country of the Armenians called
in our day Bilad Sis flowing beside the walls of Adanah, and to
the west of the same After passing Adanah which lies less than
SL day's march from Al Massissah the Saihan joins the Jaihan
below Al Massissah, and the two become one stream, which
debouches into the Greek Sea between Ayas and Tarsus."
(A.F, 50.)
The Saihan and Jaihan do not, at the present day, join their
waters, but flow into the Mediterranean by separate mouths. The
names of Jaihan and Saihan were given to these frontier rivers by
the early Muslims, on the analogy of the Jaihan, and Sihun, the
Oxus and Jaxartes, the frontier rivers of Central Asia.
Nahr al Baradan (the Cydnus). " This," says Mas'udi "is
-the river of Tarsus, which flows into the sea on the coasts of
Tarsus." (Mas., i. 264.) Ibnal Fakih says this river is also called
AlGhadban. (I.F., 116.)
64 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
"Al Baradan," says Yakut, "is a river of the Thughur (or
Frontier Fortresses). It rises in the Greek country, and flows into
the sea six miles from Tarsus. It waters the gardens of Mar'ash,
after rising at the foot of a mountain near there called Al 'Akra 7
(the Bald)." (Yak., i. 553 ; Mar., i. 140.)
LAKES.
The Dead Sea. The Dead Sea, at the present day, is generally
known as the Bahr Lut, or " Lake of Lot." In earlier days it is
spoken of as Al Bnhairah al Miyyatah, the " Dead Lake," Al
Buhairah al Muntinah, the " Stinking Lake," or Al Makhlb, the
" Overwhelmed," from the cities of Lot that were overwhelmed in
its depths. It is also referred to under the name of the Sea of
Zughar or Sughar, from the celebrated town of that name on
its banks. It is to be noted that nowhere in the Bible is this
lake called the Dead Sea, this denomination first occurring in
Justin (xxxvi. 3, 6), who speaks of the " Mare mortuum ;" Pau-
sanias also writes (v. 7, 4) of &aXaaaa y vt*.f<d.
"The Dead Sea, Al Buhairah al Miyyatah," says Ya'kubi, "lies
in the district of Bait Jibrin. It is from hence that the asphalt
(Hiiwrah) comes, which is also called Mumiya." (Yb., 117.)
"The Dead Sea," according to Istakhri and Ibn Haukal, "lies
in the fore (or southern) part of Syria, near Zughar, and in the
Ghaur. It is called the Dead Sea because there is in it no living
creature nor fish. The waters throw up a substance called hummar
(asphalt), which is used by the people of Zughar for the fertilization
of their vines. The vines are so treated all over Palestine ; after
the same manner the palm also is fertilized, by applying the
male spathe ; and so, too, the people of Al Maghrib (the West)
fertilize their fig-trees with the flower of the male plant. According
to Istakhri, the Dead Sea is called Al Buhairah al Muntinah (the
Stinking Lake)." (Is., 64 ; I. H., 123 ; copied by A. F., 228.)
The account of the fertilization of the vines with the bitumen is,
of course, a vulgar error. The natives anoint the vine plants with
bitumen to keep off the worms and grubs, as is mentioned below
in Nasir's account. The artificial fertilization of the palm and
other fruit-bearing trees, is a subject very fully discussed by the
Arab writers on horticulture.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 65
Mukaddasi writes : " The I^ike of Sughar (the Dead Sea) is a
marvellous place, for the river Jordan and the river of the Sharah
both pour into it, and yet they change the level not at all. It is
said that a man does not sink easily in its waters, and that (during
storms) waves do not rise on its surface. With its waters, if a
clyster be administered, the same is a cure for many disorders.
They have a feast-day for the purpose of thus taking the waters,
and it occurs in the middle of the month of Ab (August), when
the people with those who are afflicted with sickness assemble
thereto." (Muk., 186.)
" Now the river Jordan, descending through the valleys of the
Ghaur, falls into the Overwhelming Lake (which is the Dead Sea).
This lake is completely salt, wild, all-swallowing, and stinking.
The mountains tower above it, but its waves never rise in the
storm." (Muk., 184.)
The Persian traveller, Nasir-i-Khusrau, writing in 1047, speaks
in the following terms of the Dead Sea :
" South of Tiberias lies the Buhairah Lut (the Lake of Lot).
The waters of this lake are salt, although the (fresh) waters of the
Lake of Tiberias flow down into it. The cities of Lot were along
its borders, but no trace of them remains. A certain person
related to me that in the salt waters of this lake there is a sub-
stance which gathers itself together from the foam of the lake, and
is black, with the likeness in form to a bull's (carcase floating).
This stuff (which is asphalt) resembles stone, but is not so hard.
The people of the country gather it and break it in pieces, sending
it to all the cities and countries round. When the lower part of
a tree is covered with some of this (asphalt), no worm will ever do
the tree a harm. In all these parts they preserve the roots of the
trees by this means, and thus guard against the damage to the
gardens that would arise from worms and things that creep below
the soil. The truth, however, of all this rests on the credibility of
the word of him who related it to me, for I have not seen it.
They say, too, that the druggists also will buy this substance, for
they hold that a worm, which they call the Nuktah, attacks their
drugs, and that this asphalt preserves therefrom." (N. Kh., 17, 18.)
It is worthy of note that as regards the appearance of the asphalt
5
66 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
floating on the waters of the Dead Sea, Josephus uses much the
same expressions. He writes (B. J., iv. 8, 4) :
" The lake also emits in various places black masses of bitumen,
which float on the surface, somewhat resembling headless bulls in
appearance and size."
As regards the stinking properties of the waters, Lieut. Lynch,
while encamped at Engedi, noticed " a strong smell of sulphuretted
hydrogen," also " a fetid sulphureous odour in the night." He,
however, adds elsewhere : " Although the water was greasy, acrid,
and disagreeable, it was perfectly inodorous." The malodour
doubtless arises from the gases given out at the springs which
lie along the shore.
" Buhairah Zughar," writes Idrisi, " is also called Buhairah
Sadiim and Ghamur, and these last were two of the cities of Lut,
which Allah overwhelmed, so that the place of them became the
Stinking Lake. It is also known as the Dead Sea, because there
is nothing in it that has the breath of life, neither fish nor beast,
nor any other creature, of the kinds found in other stagnant and
moving waters. The waters (of the Dead Sea) are warm, and of
a disagreeable odour. There ply on the lake small ships which
make the voyage of these parts, and carry over corn and various
sorts of dates from Zughar and Ad Darah to Ariha (Jericho), and
the other provinces of the Ghaur. The Dead Sea measures 60
miles in length by 12 miles in the breadth." (Id., 3.)
" The foul odour of the lake," says Yakut, " is extremely noxious,
and in certain years the miasma is blown across the land, and
causes destruction to all living creatures, human and others. By
this all the neighbouring villages are depopulated for a time ; then
other people come there who do not have a care for their lives,
and these settle in the lands once more. It is an accursed lake,
for nothing grows there. When anything falls into its waters it
becomes useless. Thus fire-wood is spoilt, and such drift-wood
as is thrown up on the shore will not kindle. Ibn al Fakih says
that anyone who falls into its waters cannot sink, but remains
floating about till he dies." (Yak., i. 516 ; iii. 822 ; Mar., i. 132.)
Dimashki writes : " The people have many opinions concerning
the disappearance of the waters (of the Dead Sea). Some say that
its waters have an exit into a country afar off, whose lands they
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 67
irrigate and fertilize, and here the waters may be drunk. This
country, they report, lies at a distance of two months' journey.
Others say that the soil all round the lake being extremely hot,
and having beds of flaming sulphur beneath, there never cease to
rise vapours, and these, causing the water to evaporate, keep it to a
certain level. Others, again, say there is an exit through the earth
whereby its waters join those of the Red Sea ; and others again
affirm it has no bottom, but that there is a passage leading down
to the Behemoth (who supports the earth). But Allah knows best
the truth of all this ! It is from this lake that they get the asphalt.
No living creature inhabits it, and no plant grows on its border."
(Dim., 108.)
Buhairah Tabariyyah (the Lake of Tiberias). In Mukaddasi's
days, as will be mentioned below (Chapter VIII. , Tabariyyah\
the lake was covered with boats carrying the trade and products
of the villages along its shores.
"The Lake of Tabariyyah," writes Yakut, "is about 12 miles
long by 6 broad. It is like an immense pool, surrounded by the
mountains. Many streams pour into it, and the city of Tabariyyah
stands on its (western) shore. It lies about 50 miles distant from
Jerusalem. The Greater (or Upper) Jordan flows into it, as also
the streams coming down from the Nabulus district. Out of the
lake flows a great stream, called the Lesser (or Lower) Jordan,
which, after watering the Ghaur, pours into the Stinking Sea by
Jericho. In the middle of the Lake of Tiberias is a projecting
rock, which they say is the tomb of Solomon, the son of David.
Now, the sinking together of the waters of the Lake of Tiberias
will be a sign of the coming of the Antichrist, called Ad Dajjal.
It is related further that, when its waters have disappeared, one of
the people of Yajuj and-Majuj (Gog and Magog) will say, 'Verily,
there is water there beyond,' and then they will all march on
towards Jerusalem. Afterwards Jesus will appear, standing on
the Rock, called As Sakhrah, being surrounded by all true
believers, and to them He will preach. Then a man of the
Jurhum tribe or of Ghassan, as some say will go out against
the people of Yajuj and Majuj, and they will be routed and
utterly dispersed." (Yak., i. 515 ; Mar., i. 131.)
52
68 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
"Buhairah Tabariyyah," says Abu-1 Fida in 1321, "lies at the
upper end of the Ghaur. Into it flows the Jordan, called Nahr
ash Shari'ah, coming down from the Buhairah Baniyas. The lake
is called after Tabariyyah, which is a town now in ruins, on the
south-western shore thereof. The circumference of the lake is
two days' march, and its surface is quite bare of reeds."
(A. F., 39.)
Buhairah Kadas, or Buhairah Baniyas. The Hulab Lake,
called in the Bible the Waters of Merom, is referred to in the
early Arab geographers either as the Lake of Kadas, from Kadas
(Kadesh Naphthali), on the height west of it ; or as the Lake of
Baniyas (Paneas, Caesarea Philippi), the city lying some distance
to the north.
Mukaddasi, in 985, speaks of it as " a small lake, lying about
an hour distant from Kadas, the waters of which flow into the
Lake of Tiberias. In order to form the lake, they have built a
wonderful embankment of masonry along the river, confining the
water to its bed. Along the shore are thickets of the Haifa-reed,
which gives the people their livelihood, for they weave mats and
twist ropes therefrom. In this lake are numerous kinds of fish,
especially that called the Bunni, which was brought here from
Wasit (in Mesopotamia), that town of numerous clients."
(Muk., 161.)
It is to be noted that the Haifa-reed here mentioned is, with-
out doubt, the Papyrus Antiquorum, called, by the Fallahin of
the present day, Babur. (Cf. Canon Tristram Fauna and Flora
of Palestine, P. E. F., p. 438.) Lane, however, in his Dictionary
(s. v. Haifa], states that the botanical name of this reed is Poa
Multiflora, or P. Cynosuroides.
The " Bunni," according to Berggren (Guide Arabe Vulgaire],
is at the present day the name for the carp, which fish, he says,
abounds in the Sea of Galilee and in the Euphrates. Sir R.
Burton, however, in a note to vol. viii., p. 187, of his translation
of the Thousand and One Nights, says the " Bunni " is the
Cyprinus Binni (Forsk), a fish somewhat larger than a barbel,
with lustrous, silvery scales and delicate flesh.
" Buhairah Baniyas," says Abu-1 Fida, " lies near the town of
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 69
Baniyas, which is in the Damascus Province. It is a lake, sur-
rounded by lowlands, and covered with reeds. Into it flow a
number of streams from the mountains round. The river Jordan,
called Ash Shari'ah, flows out of it, and falls into the I^ake of
Tabariyyah." (A. F., 40.)
Buhairah al Marj. The Damascus Lakes are called by Yakut
Buhairah al Marj, " the Meadow Lakes." " They lie to the east of
Damascus, and five leagues distant, across the Ghautah, near the
plain called Marj Rahit. The overflow of the Damascus rivers (the
Baradaand others) goes into them." (Yak., i. 516 ; Mar., i. 132.)
Buhairah al BikCi. The lake in the plain of Ccelo Syria is
called Buhairah al Bika by Abu-1 Fida. " It is a sheet of stagnant
water, full of thickets and reeds, lying, at the distance of a day's
journey, to the west of Ba'albakk." (A. F., 40.)
It is to be noted that this lake does not now exist, its waters
having been drained off. On the margin of the Paris MS. of
Abu-1 Fida is the following curious note :
" The Lake of the Bika was a lowland, covered with reeds and
osiers, which they used for making mats. It lay in the middle of
the Bika' Plain of Ba'albakk, between Karak Nuh and 'Ain al
Jarr. The Amir Saif ad Din Dunkuz bought it for himself from
the public treasury, and cleared the land of water by digging a
number of channels, which drew off its waters into the Litany
River. He then established here over twenty villages. Their
crops were more rich than can be estimated or described, of such
products as melons and cucumbers. The people gained great
sums, and a rich livelihood. They planted here trees to produce
timber, and built mills. The person who had urged Dunkuz to
do all this was 'Ala ad - Din ibn Salj, a native of those parts.
When Al Malik an Nasir (Sultan of Egypt) laid hands on Dunkuz,
he took most of these villages from him, and gave them in fief to
the Syrian Amirs, and but little remained to Dunkuz or his heirs."
This Dunkuz was Governor of Syria from A.D. 1320 to 1339-
(See Abu-1 Fida's Chronicle, under the year 740 A.H.)
Buhairah Kadas, or Buhairah Hints. The Lake of Hims is
also called Buhairah Kadas, after the Northern Kadesh. " It lies,"
says Yakut, " south-west of, but near, Hims, and towards the Jabal
70 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Lubnan (Lebanon mountains). It is 12 miles long and 4 miles
broad. The streams of the surrounding hills pour down into it,
and their waters go to swell the river } Asi (Orontes), which flows
out of it. On this river lie Hamah and Shaizar." (Yak., i. 516 ;
Mar., i. 132.)
" Buhairah Kadas," says Abu-1 Fida, " is also called the Lake
of Hims. Its length from north to south is about a third of a
march, and its breadth is the length of the dyke, which we shall
now describe. This dyke has been thrown across the river
Orontes, and forms the northern border of the lake. It is built
of stone, of the construction of ancient times, being attributed to
Alexander the Great. In the middle of the dyke, and on it, are
two towers of black stone. The length of the dyke, from east to
west, is 1,287 ells, an d its breadth is i8| ells. The dyke hems in
this great mass of water, and were it to go to ruin, the waters
would rush out, and the lake would become a river, and no longer
exist. This lake lies in a plain-country, about a day's journey to
the west of Hims. They catch much fish there." (A. F., 40.)
Buhairah al Afamiyyah (the lakes of Apamea). " These,"
writes Abu-1 Fida, 'in 1321, "consist of a number of lagoons
(BatihaJi) divided one from another by beds of rushes, with low-
lands covered by reeds. The largest of these lagoons forms two
lakes one to the south, the other to the north. The waters
thereof are derived from the river Orontes, which flows into
the swamp on the south side, forming the lagoons. The river
afterwards flows out again from the northern border of the swamps
and lowlands. It is the southern of these two lakes which is
more properly called the Lake of Afamiyyah. Its width is of
about half a league, its depth is less than the height of a man, but
its bottom is so miry that a man cannot stand up in it. On
all sides and all over its surface are reeds and willows, and in the
middle there is a thicket of reeds and papyrus (baradiy), which
prevents the eye from seeing the whole of it at once, for a great
part of it is masked thereby. On these lagoons there live all kinds
of birds, such as swans ( TimmaJi ?) and the species called Al
Ghurairah (?) and Sangh, and pelicans (Al BajcCah} and cranes
(Al Iwazz\ Also birds that feed on fish, such as the species
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 71
called Aljalth (?) and Al Abyaddniydt (or white-feathered fowls),
and other such aquatic birds. In no other lagoons of which I
have knowledge are there so many kinds of birds as here. In
spring-time these lagoons are so crowded with yellow water-lilies
(Nllufar) that the whole surface is hidden thereby, and the water
is as though, covered by a veil from end to end, formed of their
leaves and flowers. The boats thread their way through them.
"The second great lagoon, which is to the north of the first, is
separated from it by the marshy land covered with reeds, through
which runs a waterway, whereby boats go from the southern to
the northern lagoon. This northern lagoon forms part of the
district of Hisn Barziyah. It is known as the Lake of the
Christians (Buhairah anNasard) ; for there are Christian fishermen
who live here in huts built on piles, in the northern part of the
lagoon. This lake is four times larger than the Afamiyyah Lake.
In the middle of the Lake of the Christians the dry land appears.
Water-lilies grow all along its northern and southern banks ; and
there are here also water-birds like what has been described above.
There is here the eel called Al Ankalis. These lagoons lie to
the west, bearing somewhat to the north of the town of Afamiyyah,
and at no great distance therefrom." (A. F., 40.)
Buhairah Antdkiyyah (the Lake of Antioch).* "This lake,"
says Yakut, "lies at a distance of three days' journey from
Antioch. It is of sweet water, and in length about 20 miles,
while its breadth is 7 miles. The lake lies in the territory known
as Al 'Amk, 'the lowland.'" (Yak., i. 514; Mar., i. 131.)
" Buhairah Antakiyyah," says Abu-1 Fida, "lies between
Antakiyyah, Baghras and Harim, and occupies the plain country
called Al 'Amk. It belongs to the district of Halab (Aleppo),
and is situated about twelve days' journey to the west thereof.
Into this lake flow three rivers coming from the north. The
easternmost of these is called the Nahr 'Ifrin ; the westernmost,
which runs under Darbassak, is called An Nahr al Aswad, 'the
Black River ;' and the third, which flows between the first two, is
called the Nahr Yaghra. Yaghra is the name of a village on its
banks, the population of which is Christian. The circumference
* Known at the present day as Ak Deniz.
72 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
of the lake is about a day's journey. It is covered with reeds, and
there are fish and birds here the like to which we have mentioned
in describing the Lake of Afamiyyah. The three rivers aforesaid
namely, the Nahr al Aswad, the Yaghra, and the 'Ifrin- come
together * to form a single stream before they fall into the lake on
its northern shore. And from the southern end a river flows out
which joins the Orontes below the Jisr al Hadid (the Iron Bridge),
which lies about a mile above Antakiyyah. The lake lies to the
north of Antakiyyah." (A. F., 41.)
Buhairah al Yaghra. A lake mentioned by Yakut, probably
one of the small lakes found to the north-east of the Lake of
Antioch.t "It lies," says Yakut, "between Antioch and the
Thughur (or Frontier Fortresses), and collects into it the waters
of the river 'Asi (the Orontes), of the Nahr 'Ifrin and the Nahr
al Aswad. These two last come down from the neighbourhood
of Mar'ash. It is called also Buhairah as Sallur which last
is the Eel, called also Al Jirri by reason of the number of these
fishes found in its water." (Yak., i. 516 ; Mar., i. 132.)
Buhairah al Hadath. "This," says Yakut, "is a lake near
Mar'ash, lying towards the Greek country. Its beginning is near
the village of Ibn Ash Shi'i, 12 miles from Al Hadath in the
direction of Malatyah. The lake extends thence to Al Hadath,
which is a strongly fortified castle of those parts." (Yak., i. 514;
Mar., i. 131.)
MOUNTAINS.
At Tfir. "Tur," says Abu-1 Fida, "in the Hebrew language
means ' mountain ' in general, but the name has passed to designate
certain mountains in particular. Thus Tur Zaita (the Mount of
Olives) is the hill near Jerusalem, where, according to tradition,
70,000 prophets died of hunger. Tur is also the special name of
the mountain above Tiberias (Mount Tabor). The position of
* This is no longer the case, according to the present maps. The Nahr al
Aswad, called at the present day in Turkish, Kara Sou, meaning likewise
"Black River," flows into the Lake of Ak Deniz on the north, while the
'Ifrin, or 'Afrin, flows in by a separate mouth from the east. See above,
pp. 60 and 62.
t Presumably not identical with the " Lake of Antioch," the description of
which is given in the Arabic text two pages previously.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 73
Tur Sina (Mount Sinai) is the subject of discussion. Some say it
is the mountain near Ailah, and others that it is a mountain in
Syria ; and they say that it is called Sind on account of its stones, or
else on account of the trees that grow there.* Tur Harun (Mount
Hor) is the name of a high mountain which rises int he country
south of Jerusalem. The tomb of Aaron is on its summit. "
(A. F, 69.)
Tur Sma (Mount Sinai). " Tur Sina," writes Mukaddasi,
" lies not far from the Bahr al Kulzum (the Red Sea). One goes
up to it from a certain village called Al Amn,f which same is the
place where Moses and the children of Israel encamped. There
are here twelve springs of fairly sweet water, and thence up to
Sinai is two days' march. The Christians have a monastery
(Dair) in Mount Sinai, and round it are some well cultivated
fields, and there grow here olive-trees, said to be those mentioned
by Allah in the Kuran (chap, xxiv., ver. 35), where it is written
concerning that * blessed tree, an olive neither of the east nor of
the west.' And the olives from these trees are sent as presents to
kings." (Muk., 179.)
" Jabal at Tur," says Idrisi, "is reached from Faran (Paran).
It lies close to the (Red) Sea, and the mountain-chain stretches
parallel thereto, and between it and the sea is a road that is much
traversed. It is a high mountain into which you go up by steps,
and at its summit is a mosque where there is a well of stagnant
water, from which those who come and go may drink." (Id., 2.)
" At Tur, or Tur Sina," says Yakut, " is a mountain near
Madyan (Midian), where God spake with Moses the second time,
after he had come out of Egypt with the Children of Israel. The
name 'Tur Sina' is of the language of the Nabatheans. It is a
mountain covered with plants and trees, and is an extension of
the range above Ailah." (Yak., iii. 557 ; Mar., ii. 214.)
TAr Harun (Mount Hor). "A high and sacred mountain,"
* Stanley, Sinai and Palestine, p. 17 (ed. of 1877), states that " the most
probable origin even of the ancient ' Sinai ' is the Seneh or acacia, with
which, as we know, it then abounded "that is, in Biblical times.
f Possibly an Arab corruption of the name of Elim, where the Israelites
encamped before coming " into the wilderness of Sin, which is between Elim
and Sinai," Exod. xv. 27.
74 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
says Yakut, "lying to the south of Jerusalem. Harun (Aaron)
went up into it with his brother Musa (Moses), but did not return.
Then the children of Israel accused Moses of having slain him,
but he showed them a bier on a plateau in the mountain-top, with
the body of Harun upon it. The place was called after him."*
(Yak., iii. 559; Mar., ii. 215.)
The historian Mas'udi, as early as 943 A.D., writes: "Aaron
died and was buried in Jabal Maab (Moab) among the mountains
of the Sharah district, that lie in the direction of Sinai. His
tomb is celebrated. It stands in an 'Adite (antique) cavern, in
which on certain nights is heard a mighty sound, terrifying to all
living creatures. Others say Aaron was not buried underground,
but was merely laid in this cavern. There are many strange
accounts given by those who have visited this place, and who
describe it." (Mas., i. 94.)
Tur Zaita, or Jabal Zaita (the Mount of Olives). " A holy
mountain," says Yakut, " overhanging Jerusalem and to the east.
The Wadi Jahannum divides it from the city. In this wadi is the
'Ain Sulwan (Siloam), and across the wadi the Bridge as Sirat
shall be stretched. On the mount Omar prayed. The tombs of
70,000 prophets who died here are to be seen in this mount, and
from it Jesus ascended into heaven." (Yak., iii. 558 ; Mar , ii. 215.)
Jabal ash Sharah. " This district lies to the south of the Balka.
Behind it is the desert, which is now inhabited by the settled
Fellahin." (A. F., 228.)
Jabal al Khamr. " These mountains," writes Yakut, "are men-
tioned in the Traditions of the Prophet, and are said to be the
mountains of Jerusalem, so-called from the quantity of wine
(khamr) that is grown here." (Yak., ii. 21 ; Mar., i. 238.)
At Tur (Ebal and Gerizint}. " This," says Yakut, "is the
holy mountain above Nabulus, to which the Samaritans go in
pilgrimage. The Jews hold it also in high respect, for they say
Abraham was here commanded to sacrifice Isaac. The name is
mentioned in the Pentateuch." (Yak., iii. 557 ; Mar., ii. 214.)
Jabal at Tur (Tabor}. This name is mentioned incidentally
* This legend is given in full in G. Weil's Biblischc Legenden der Musel-
inanner, p. 185. It is derived from the Midrash.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 75
by Ibn Jubair in 1185 as that of the mount situated not far from
Tiberias ; he, however, did not visit it. (I. J., 313 )
" At Tur Tabor," says Yakut, '* is a mountain above Tabariy-
yah in the Jordan Province. It lies four leagues from Tabariyyah.
On its summit is a spacious and strongly built church. A fair is
held there every year. Al Malik al Mu'atham 'Isa, the son of
(Saladin's brother) Al Malik al 'Adil Abu Bakr, built there a strong
castle, and kept his treasures in this place. But when in 615
(1218) the Franks came from beyond the sea to try and retake
Jerusalem, he ordered this castle to be dismantled, and so it
remains now." (Yak., iii. 557 ; Mar., ii. 215.)
At Tur (Tabor) Ali of Herat confounds with Sinai, for he says
Moses received the law in this mountain, " which is near Tiberias."
(A. H., Oxf. MS., f. 31.)
Jabal 'Amilah. The Jabal 'Amilah in Upper Galilee is the one
referred to in the following notices. A second mountainous
region, also called Jabal 'Amilah, but lying north of Damascus, is
that of which Yakut (A.D. 1225) speaks under the heading of
Kafar Latha (see below, Part II.).
"Jabal 'Amilah," says Mukaddasi in 985, "is a mountainous
district where are many fine villages, and here are grown grapes
and other fruits, and olives. There are also many springs. The
rain waters its fields. The district overhangs the sea, and adjoins
the Lebanon mountains." (Muk., 162.)
This district is called after the tribe of the Bani 'Amilah, who
were settled here in the early days of the Muslim conquest. The
district corresponds roughly with Upper Galilee. During the
period of the Crusades the tribe migrated north, and the region
between Damascus and Hims then took the name of Jabal
'Amilah, as is mentioned by Yakut, and further described in the
following account :
" In the Safad Province," says Dimashki in 1 300, " is the
district of the Jabal 'Amilah, full of vineyards, olives, carob,
and terebinth trees. Its population are of the Rafidite and
Imamite sects. Also in this province is Jabal Jaba'* with a
* The name is identical with the Biblical Gibeah, meaning " humped,"
a common name for hills. See Stanley, Sinai and Palestine, Appendix, 25.
76 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
like population. It is a high mountain tract full of springs, arid
vineyards, and fruits. Near it is Jabal Jazin, with springs and
fruit-lands in plenty; also Jabal Tibnin, which has a castle
and districts, and lands round it. This district is also inhabited
by Rafidites and Imamites. Jabal Baki'ah is named after the
village called Al Baki'ah, where are running waters and excellent
quinces. In this district are also many other villages with olive-
grounds in plenty, and fruits and vineyards. Jabal az Zabud
overhangs Safad. Az Zabud is a village, and there are many other
villages in the country round. The people of these villages are of
the Druze, Hakimite, and Amrite sects." (Dim., 211.)
" The Jabal 'Amilah," writes Abu-1 Fida, " runs down east of
the coast as far south as Tyre. The fortress of Ash Shakif
(Arnon) is here, which Baibars took from the Franks, under whom
its people formerly lived." (A.F., 228.)
Jaba/'Auf. " This," says Abu-1 Fida in 1321, " is the district
lying south-east of Jabal 'Amilah. The populations of both were
rebellious until Usamah (one of Saladin's Amirs) built the fortress
of 'Ajlun to curb and bring them into subjection. This last is a
very strong fortress, dominating the Ghaur (of the Jordan). All
its territory is very fertile, and it is covered with trees, and well-
watered by streams." (A^F., 228. See also under 'Ajlun. )
Jabal SiddikCi. "These mountains," writes Mukaddasi in 985,
"lie between Tyre, Kadas, and Sidon. Here may be seen the
tomb of Siddika. On the middle day of the (lunar) month of
Sha'ban, it is the custom for great numbers of the people of the
towns round here to make a pilgrimage to this tomb, and the
Lieutenant of the Sultan also is present. It so happened that once
when I was sojourning in this part of the country, upon the Friday
in the middle of Sha'ban, the Kadi Abu'l Kasim ibn Al 'Abbas
called upon me to preach before the congregation. In my sermon
I urged them to the restoration of this mosque, and with success,
for afterwards this was accomplished, a pulpit being also erected
therein. I have heard it related that when a dog in pursuit of
any wild animal comes to the boundaries of this sanctuary, he
there and then stops short ; and there are other stories told of a
like kind." (Muk., 188.)
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 77
Jabal al Jaulan (the Hills of the Jaulan). " These," says
Mukaddasi, " lie on the opposite hand to the Lebanon mountains
(across the Jordan), over towards Damascus. Here it was that I
met Abu Ishak al Balluti (him of the oak-tree), who was accom-
panied by forty men, his disciples, all of them dressed in woollen
garments (after the manner of the ascetics). These people have a
mosque, in which they assemble for prayer. I found Abu Ishak
to be a very learned and pious jurisconsult of the sect of Sufyan
ath ThCiri. These people feed themselves with acorns the fruit
being of the size of the date, but bitter. They split it in half, and
make it sweeter by allowing it to soak in water. It is then dried
and ground in a mill. In this country (of Jaulan) also grows
desert-barley, which the people mix with the acorn-meal, and
therewith make their bread." (Muk., 188.)
Jabal al Jaltl. "The inhabitants of these mountains," says
Ya'kubi in 891, "are Arabs of the 'Amilah tribe." (Yb., 114.)
" The Jabal al Jalil," says Yakut, " lie on the coast of Syria, ex-
tending up towards Hims. The dwelling-place of Nuh (Noah)
was in Jabal al Jalil, near Hims, at a village called Sahr, and it is
said the Flood began to pour out here. The Jabal al Jalil extend
to near Damascus also, and Tsa (Jesus) preached here, promising
that this district should never suffer famine." (Yak., ii. no;
Mar., i. 263.)
Jabal Bani Hilal." These," writes Yakut, " are the mountains
of the Hauran Province of Damascus. There are in this district
many villages ; among them is the village of Al Malikiyyah, where
is shown a wooden platter said to have belonged to the Prophet."
(Yak., ii. 22 ; Mar., i. 239.)
Jabal Lubnan (the Lebanon mountains). " These," says
Mukaddasi, " lie contiguous to (and to the north of) the Jabal Sid-
dika, running all along and parallel to the coast, from Sidon up to
Tripolis. Their slopes are covered with trees, and fruits fit for
eating abound. Everywhere among the Lebanon mountains occur
little springs of water, where people who come here to pray have
made for themselves houses of reeds or rushes. They live on the
edible fruits, and also gain money by cutting what is known as the
* Persian reeds,' and the myrtles, and other like shrubs, which they
7 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
carry into the towns for sale. But they do not obtain much
profit thereby." (Muk., 160, 188.)
"The Lebanon mountains," says Ibn al Fakih, "belong to
Damascus, and they are inhabited by hermits and anchorites.
There grow here all kinds of fruits and vegetables, and every-
where are springs of fresh water. These mountains extend as
far as the Greek country. The apples of the Lebanon are very
wonderful, in that when they first come from the Lebanon
district they are sweet mountain apples without any flavour
or savour, but after having been set in the water of the Nahr al
Balikh, they immediately acquire a fine flavour." (I. K, 112,
117.)
"The Lebanon mountains," writes Ibn Jubair in 1185, "are full
of the castles of Ismailians (Assassins). This range is the bound-
ary between the Muslims and the Franks, for beyond them to the
north lie Antakiyyah and Al Ladhikiyyah, and other towns, which
are in the hands of the Christians. May Allah return these into
the hands of the Muslims !" (I. J., 257.)
"The mountains of the Lebanon overhang Hims," says Yakut.
"This range has its origin at Al 'Arj, between Makkah and Al
Madinah, and extends thence till it reaches Syria. That part
which is in Filastin is called Jabal al Hamal ; in the Jordan Pro-
vince the range is called Jabal al Jalil ; at Damascus, the Sanir
mountains ; near Halab, Hamah, and Hims, it is the Jabal Lubnan.
This same range extends to Antakiyyah and Al Massissah, and
there it is called Jabal al Lukkam. Further north again they go
by Malatyah Sumaisat and Kalikala, even as far as the Bahr al
Khazar (the Caspian), and there they are called Al Kaik. In the
Jabal Lubnan is a most beautiful district belonging to Hims, and
here are grown fruits in quantities, and arable fields are seen such
as are found nowhere else. They say that in the Lebanon district
there are spoken seventy dialects, and no one people understands
the language of the other, except through an interpreter/' (Yak.,
ii. no, iv. 347 ; Mar., i. 263, iii. 5.)
"On the slopes of the Lebanon mountains," according to
Dimashki, " there grow more than ninety kinds of plants and herbs
that spring up here naturally without cultivation, flowering all the
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 79
year round, to the profit of those who gather them. Also many
fruit and other trees." (Dim., 199.)
"The Lebanon mountains," Ibn Batutah notes in his Diary,
" are some of the greenest in the world. There are all sorts of fruits
grown here, and springs of water occur frequently, and shade is
found in summer. This region is celebrated for the anchorites
and holy men who dwell here." (I. B., i. 184.)
Jabal an Nusairiyyah, " These," writes Abu-1 Fida, " are cele-
brated mountains lying near Halab. The Nusairiyyah are a sect
called after Nusair, the freedman of 'Ali ibn Abu Talib.* They
hold that 'AH stopped the sun on its course, as did Joshua, the
son of Nun ; and that a crane spoke to him, as did one to Jesus.
They most of them hold 'Ali for the divinity." (A. F., 232, from
Ibn Sa'id.)
Jabal Sanir. "This," says Yakut, "is the name for the mountains
lying between Hims and Ba'albakk, along the high road. On their
summit is the Castle of Kala'ah Sanir. The range extends west,
and east to Al Kariyatain and Salamiyyah. It lies east of Hamah.
Jabal al Jalil is opposite to it, lying along the coast. Between the
two stretches the wide plain in which lie Hims and Hamah, and
many other towns. This mountain tract of Sanir forms a Kurah
(or district), and its capital is Huwwarin, which is Kariyatain.
The range is co-terminous with the Lebanon on the right, and
stretches thence northwards, even as far as the Bilad al Khazar
(the region of the Caspian). On the left (southwards and to the
east), the range travels on and extends even as far as Al Madinah.
Jabal Sanir is only the name of this mountain tract between Hims
and Ba'albakk, and is thus but a small portion of this long range
of mountains." (Yak., iii. 170; Mar., ii. 61.)
"Jabal ath Thalj ('the Mountain of Snow,' Hermon), Jabal
Lubnan, and Jabal Lukkam, all these mountains," says Abu-1 Fida,
" are continuous, and run one into the other, forming but a single
range going from south to north. The southern point of the chain
is near Safid. Jabal ath Thalj (Hermon) runs up north and passes
* This is a mistake. They take their name from Muhammad ibn Nusair, who
flourished at the end of the ninth century A.D. See Haarbrucker's translation
of Shahrastani, i. 216.
8o PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Damascus. To the north of this the mountain takes the name of
Jabal Sanir. The spur of the chain which overhangs Damascus
is called Jabal Kasiyun. After passing Damascus the chain goes
west of Ba'albakk, and the range over against Ba'albakk is called
the Lebanon. After passing Ba'albakk it has to the east of it
Tarabulus of Syria, and goes now by the name of Jabal 'Akkar,
'Akkar being the name of a fortress in the above-mentioned moun-
tains. The chain then passes on north, and after Tarabulus
reaches Hisn al Akrad (the Kurd's Castle). Here, in the same
parallel, lies Hims, at a distance of a day's journey to the west.
Hence the range continues on northward, and passes the line of
Hamah, then Shaizar, then Afamiyyah ; and the range, when it
comes to be opposite these cities, goes by the name of Jabal al
Lukkam. When the parallel of Afamiyyah is reached the Jabal
al Lukkam lying to the west of that city there begins another
chain opposite the Jabal al Lukkam, and running parallel with it
northwards, Near Afamiyyah this second range goes by the
name of Jabal Shahshabu, being called after a village of the name
of Shahshabu, lying on the southern flank of the mountains. Jabal
Shahshabu runs from south to north, passing to the west of Al
Ma'arrah, Sarmin, and Halab ; after this it bears to the west, and
joins the mountains of the country of the Greeks.
"As to the Jabal al Lukkam, however, this continues north-
wards, and there is between it and the Jabal Shahshabu a broad
valley about half a day's march across, in which lie the lakes of
Afamiyyah. The Jabal al Lukkam extends on northwards, passing
by Sihyun, Ash Shughr and Bikas, and Al Kusair, till it reaches
Antakiyyah. Here the mountain chain is cut through, and
opposite, beyond the valley, rise the mountains of Armenia. In
(the valley) cutting across the chain runs the river 'Asi (Orontes),
which falls into the sea at As Suwaidiyyah." (A. F., 68.)
Jabal ad Darziyyah (the Druze Mountain). " A continuation
of the Lebanon chain," says Abu-1 Fida, "in the direction of the
valley, called Wadi at Tairn. The chain goes also by the name of
the Jabal Kasruwan. The people are of the Ibahite sect, as are
also the people of the Lebanon." (A. F., 229, quoting Ibn Sa'id.)
Jabal Sikkin. "This," says Abu-1 Fida, in 1321, "isthemoun-
SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 81
tain chain where the Ismailians have their chief quarters and their
fortresses, such as Masjaf, Al Kahf, and Al Khawabi. These
fortresses lie in the mountains that run down along the coast over
against the country between Hims and Hamah. Masyaf makes a
triangle with Hims and Hamah ; the east point is Hamah, the
north-west is Masyaf, and the south-west is Hims, they being each
about a day's journey the one from the other." (A. F., 229 ;
from Ibn Sa'id.)
Jabal al Khalt." A district," says Abu-1 Fida, " lying between
Hims and the sea. There are here a great number of the Ibahite
sect (who believe everything to be licit). When they can they sell
the Muslims as slaves to the Franks." (A. F., 229.)
Jabal as Summak. "This," says Yakut, "is a great mountain
region in the district of Western Halab. It is covered with towns,
villages, and castles, all inhabited by people of the Ismailian sect.
The district lies for the most part in the government of Halab.
Jabal as Summak is so called from the Summak (Sumac) tree,
which abounds here. Sesame, cotton, and apricots are grown
here, and there is running water ; also gardens in plenty and all
kinds of trees and fruits." (Yak., ii. 21 ; Mar., i. 238.)
Jabal al Akrd ("the Bald Mountain"). "The name of the
mountains," says Yakut, " in Syria that are seen from the sea,
overhanging the districts round Antakiyyah, Al Ladhikiyyah, and
Tarabulus. The range is of unknown height." (Yak., i. 336 ;
Mar., i. 195.)
Jabal Akra' is the Mons Casius of the Romans, south of
Antioch. Ibn Batutah writes that it is "one of the highest moun-
tains of Syria. You see it first of all others coming from the sea.
The Turkomans dwell on its slopes (A.D. 1355), and there are
many streams and springs that flow down from it." (I. B., i. 183.)
Jabal Lukkam. These are more particularly the eastern and
northern parts of what was anciently known as Mount Amanus.
All the Syrian mountains north of the Lebanon, however, are
apparently included under this general name. (See the preceding
page.) The Jabal Lukkam are often identical with the Jabal
Sikkin of the later Arab geographers.
" Jabal al Lukkam," says Mukaddasi, " is the most populous
6
82 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
mountain region of Syria, also the largest in area and the most
rich in fruit-trees. At the present day, however (A.D. 985), all this
country is in the hands of the Armenians. Tarsus lies beyond
these mountains, and Antioch is on our side of them." (Muk.,
188.)
Istakhri and Ibn Haukal, writing in the earlier part of the tenth
century, give the following account of this range : " The Jabal al
Lukkam divide the Syrian from the Mesopotamian Frontier For-
tresses, and the range extends north, far into the country of the
Greeks for 200 leagues even, as it is said. The range first
appears in the lands of Islam, running down between Mar'ash, Al
Haruniyyah, and 'Ain Zarbah. The chain goes by the name of
Jabal al Lukkam as far south as Al Ladhikiyyah. Below this the
mountains have, as far as Hims, the name of Jabal (the mountain
of the tribes of) Bahra and Tanukh. South of Hims the range is
called the Lebanon (Jabal Lubnan), and to the south again they
spread out all over Syria, until on the one hand they end on the
shore of the Bahr Kulzum (the Red Sea), and on the other reach
the Cairo hills called Al Mukattam." (Is., 56 ; I. H., 108.)
" The Jabal al Lukkam," says Yakut, " are the mountains over-
hanging Antakiyyah, Al Massissah, Tarsus, and the other cities of
the Thughur (or Frontier Fortresses). The range extends north
into the country to the Leo kings of Armenia." (Yak., iv. 364;
Mar., iii. 17.)
JERUSALEM
AD. 985-1052,
According tx> tte
Arab Geograpliers
Sc-ale
5 100
A S vS AH I ~ R A
1 The Plain )
200 300 400 440 Yards
PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND.
A S S A H JB
h-e'.^.PlMM
+>
CHAPTER III.
JERUSALEM.
Names of the Holy City Advantages of Jerusalem Fertility Position-
Territory of the Holy City.
The Mosque al AksA : The Prophet's Night Journey The origin of the
Mosque al Aksa 'Omar's early building and that of 'Abd al Malik
Earthquake of the year 130 (746), and restoration of the mosque by Al
Mansur and Al Mahdi The technical meaning of the term Afasjiaf, or
Mosque Mukaddasi's description of the Aksa in 985 The Talisman a-d
the Maksiirahs Earthquakes of 1016 and 1034 Inscriptions relating to
repairs Description of the Aksa by Nasir i-Khusrau in 1047 Dimensions
of the mosque The Crusades The mosque given over to the Templars
Description by Idrisi and Ali of Herat Saladin's reconquest of
Jerusalem and restoration of the Aksa in 1187 Description by Mujir ad
Din in 1496 Modern mosque.
The Dome of the Rock : The Rock The dome built over it by 'Abd a)
Malik in 691 Mr. Fergusson's theory disproved 'Abd al Malik's great
inscription Al Mamun's inscription on the doors Description o? the
Dome by Ibn al Fakfh in 903 Arrangement of the piers and pillars
Istakhri and Ibn Haukal's description That of Mukaddasi, 985 The
earthquake of 1016 and the inscriptions recording repairs Nasir-i-Khus-
rau's visit in 1047 The fall of the great lantern in 1060 The Crusaders
and the Templum Domini Temple-churches and Rafael's picture of the
Sposalizio Idrisi's account in 1154 'Ali of Herat's in 1173 The iron
railing round the Rock, and other details Pieces of the Rock taken by
the Crusaders as relics Saladin's restoration His great inscription in the
Dome Ibn liatiitah's visit in 1355 Destruction of the Cupola by fire in
1448 Suyuti's description of the Footprint of the Prophet, the Cave, ami
other maive!s--Mujlr ad Din's measurements.
JERUSALEM is known to the Muslims by the names of Bait fit
Mukaddas or Bait al Makdis, signifying " The Holy House " ; or
else simply as Al Kuds, " The Holy " ; the latter being the more
common name at the present day. The ancient Hebrew name,
" Yerushalaim," was, however, well known to the Arabs, though not
used, and YakQt mentions the forms Urtshallum, Urishalum^
also Shallow^ as the various names of the Holy City in the days
cf the Jews. (Yak., i. 402 ; Hi. 315 ; iv. 590.)
62
84 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
The Emperor Hadrian, after removing all the Jews from
Jerusalem (A.D. 130), gave the town the name of .^Elia Capitolina
the first part of this name was preserved in the Arabic as Iliya,
a name which, having no signification for the Arabs, gave rise to
numerous legends. Yakut writes :
" It is reported on the authority of Ka'ab that the Holy City
was called Iliya because Iliya was the name of a woman who built
the city." (Yak., iv. 592.) Further, Iliya is said to mean Bait
Allah (the House of God). And, again, Iliya is said to have been
so called " after the name of its builder, who was Iliya, son of
Aram, son of Sam (Shem), son of Nun (Noah), and he was the
brother of Dimishk (Damascus), Hims (Emessa), Urdunn (Jordan),
and Filastin (Palestine)." (Yak., i. 423, 424.)
Jerusalem also was occasionally referred to in poetry as Al
Balat, meaning "the court," or u royal residence," a word the
Arabs had borrowed from the Latin palatium.
Politically, Jerusalem was never the Muslim capital of the pro-
vince (Jund) of Palestine, this being at Ar Ramlah. But the
Holy City, containing within its precincts The Further Mosque,
The Rock, and other Holy Places, was only held second in point
of sanctity to the twin Holy Cities of the Hijjaz, Makkah, and Al
Madinah, in the eyes of all true believers ; and Jerusalem, further,
was to be the scene of the great gathering on the Last Judgment
Day. Even in the days of its splendour, when Ar Ramlah was
the capital of the south province, as Damascus was of the north,
Istakhri and Ibn Haukal (tenth century) write : " The Holy City
is nearly as large as Ar Ramlah. It is a city perched high on the
hills : and you have to go up to it from all sides. In all Jerusalem
there is no running water, excepting what comes from springs, that
can be used to irrigate the fields, and yet it is the most fertile
portion of Filastin." (Is., 56; I.H., in.)
Mukaddasi (A.D. 985), as his name implies, himself a native of
the Holy City, is loud in praises of the manifold advantages of
Jerusalem. He writes :
" The Holy City, Bait-al-Makdis, is also known as Iliya and
Al Balat. Among provincial towns none is larger than Jerusalem,
and many capitals are, in fact, smaller. Neither the cold nor the
heat is excessive here, and snow falls but rarely. The Kadi Abu-]
JERUSALEM. 85
Kasim, son of the Kadi of the two Holy Cities of Makkah and Al
Madinah, inquired of me once concerning the climate of Jerusalem.
I answered : * It is betwixt and between neither very hot nor
very cold.' Said he in reply : * Just as is that of Paradise.' The
buildings of the Holy City are of stone, and you will find nowhere
finer or more solid construction. In no place will you meet with
people more chaste. Provisions are most excellent here ; the
markets are clean, the Mosque is of the largest, and nowhere are
Holy Places more numerous. The grapes are enormous, and
there are no quinces to equal those of the Holy City. In Jerusalem
are all manner of learned men and doctors, and for this reason the
heart of every man of intelligence yearns towards her. All the year
round, never are her streets empty of strangers. As to the saying
that Jerusalem is the most illustrious of cities is she not the one
that unites the advantages of This World and those of the Next?
He who is of the sons of This World, and yet is ardent in the
matters of the Next, may find there a market for his wares ; while
he who would be of the men of the Next World, though his soul
clings to the good things of This, he, too, may find them here !
Further, Jerusalem is the pleasantest of places in the matter of
climate, for the cold there does not injure, and the heat is not
noxious. And as to her being the finest city, why, has any seen
elsewhere buildings finer or cleaner, or a Mosque that is more
beautiful ? And as for the Holy City being the most productive
of all places in good things, why, Allah may He be exalted !
has gathered together here all the fruits of the lowlands, and of
the plains, and of the hill country, even all those of the most
opposite kinds : such as the orange and the almond, the date and
the nut, the fig and the banana, besides milk in plenty, and honey
and sugar. And as to the excellence of the City ! why, is not
this to be the place of marshalling on the Day of Judgment ;
where the gathering together and the appointment will take place ?
Verily Makkah and Al Madinah have their superiority by reason
of the Ka'abah and the Prophet the blessing of Allah be upon
him and his family ! but, in truth, on the Day of Judgment both
cities will come to Jerusalem, and the excellencies of them all will
then be united. And as to Jerusalem being the most spacious
86 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
of cities ; why, since all created things- are to assemble there, what
place on the earth can be more extensive than this ?
" Still, Jerusalem has some disadvantages. Thus it is reported,
as found written in the Torah (or Books) of Moses, that ' Jerusalem
is as a golden basin filled with scorpions.' Then you will not find
anywhere baths more filthy than those of the Holy City ; nor any-
where the fees for the same heavier. Learned men are few, and
the Christians numerous, and the same are unmannerly in the
public places. In the hostelries the taxes are heavy on all that is
sold ; there are guards at every gate, and no one is allowed to sell
of the necessities of life except in the appointed places. In this
city the oppressed have no succour ; the meek are molested, and
the rich envied. Jurisconsults remain unvisited, and erudite men
have no renown ; also the schools are unattended, for there are no
lectures. Everywhere the Christians and the Jews have the upper
hand : and the mosque is void of either congregation or assembly
of learned men." (Muk., 166, 167. The translation is somewhat
condensed.)
That the Christians and Jews had the upper hand in Jerusalem
in the century preceding the first Crusade is certainly a curious and
noteworthy fact. In his introductory chapter Mukaddasi states that
" in Jerusalem no one can find either defect or deficiency. Wine
is not publicly consumed, and there is no drunkenness. The city
is devoid of houses of ill-fame, whether public or private. The
people, too, are noted for piety and sincerity. At one time, when
it became known that the Governor drank wine, they built up
round his house a wall, and thus prevented from getting to him
those who were invited to his banquets." (Muk., 7.)
Mukaddasi further continues :
" The territory of the Holy City is counted as all the country
that lies within a radius of forty miles from Jerusalem, and
includes many villages. For twelve miles the frontier follows the
shore (of the Dead Sea) over against Sughar and Maab ; then for
five miles it lies through the desert, and is in the district towards
the south, even unto the country that lies beyond Al Kusaifah and
the land that is over against it. And on the north the frontier
reaches to the limits of Nabulus. This, then, is the land which
JERUSALEM. 87
Allah may He be exalted ! has called blessed (Kuran, xxi. 71) ;
it is a country where, on the hills are trees, and in the plains fields
that need neither irrigation nor the watering of rivers, even as the
two men (Caleb and Joshua) reported to Moses, the son of 'Amran,
saying : ' We came on a land flowing with milk and honey.' I
myself at times in Jerusalem have seen cheese selling at a sixth
of a Dirham for the Ratl, and sugar at a Dirham the Ratl ; and
for that same sum you could obtain either a Ratl and a half of
olive-oil, or four Ratls of raisins." (Muk., 173.)
Taking the Dirham at tenpence, and the Syrian Ratl at 6 Ibs.,
we have cheese at about a farthing a pound, sugar at a penny
three farthings a pound, olive-oil at about a shilling the gallon,
and raisins at the rate of 2\ Ib. for a penny. The great natural
fertility of all the country round Jerusalem is constantly referred
to by the Arab writers. Mukaddasi notes that " in Palestine,
during the summer-time, every night, when the south wind is
blowing, dew falls, and in such quantities that the gutters of the
Aksa Mosque are set to run." (Muk., 186.)*
The position of Jerusalem crowning a hill-spur, and surrounded
on three sides by deep gorges, seems to have struck alike both
Eastern and Western pilgrims. The Arabs were accustomed to
build their great cities in the valleys, or else in the plain-country,
for the sake of the streams. The Persian traveller Nasir-i-Khusrau,
who reached Jerusalem on March 5, 1047, approached the Holy
City by the northern road. He writes :
" After we had continued our upward road some way from
Kariyat-al-'Anab, a great plain opened out in front of us, part of
which was stony, and part of it good soil ; and here, as it were,
on the summit of the mountain, lay before our view Bait-al-
Mukaddas (the Holy City). Now, the men of Syria, and of the
* The following passage from The Holy Land and the Bible, by Cunningham
Geikie, D.D., may illustrate the exactness of Muknddasi's observations : " In
Palestine," Dr. Geikie writes, " the bright skies cause the heat of the day to
radiate very quickly into space, so that the nights are as cold as the day is the
reverse. To this coldness of the night-air, the indispensable watering of all
plant-life is due. The winds, loaded with moisture, are robbed of it as they
pass over the land, the cold air condensing it into drops of water, which fall in
a gracious rain of mist on every thirsty blade."
88 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
neighbouring parts, call the Holy City by the name of Kuds (the
Holy) ; and the people of these provinces, if they are unable to
make the pilgrimage (to Makkah), will go up at the appointed
season to Jerusalem, and there perform their rites, and upon the
feast-day slay the sacrifice, as is customary to do (at Makkah) on
the same day. There are years when as many as twenty thousand
people will be present at Jerusalem during the first days of the
(pilgrimage) month of Dhu-1 Hijjah ; for they bring their children
also with them, in order to celebrate their circumcision. From
all the countries of the Greeks, too, and from other lands, the
Christians and the Jews come up to Jerusalem in great numbers,
in order to make their visitation of the Church (of the Resurrec-
tion) and the synagogue that is there ; and this great Church (of
the Resurrection) at Jerusalem we shall describe further on in its
proper place. (See Chapter V.)
" The lands and villages round the Holy City are situate upon
the hillsides ; the land is well cultivated, and they grow corn,
olives, and figs ; there are also many kinds of trees here. In all the
country round there is no (spring) water for irrigation, and yet the
produce is very abundant, and the prices are moderate. Many of
the chief men harvest as much as 50,000 Manns weight (or about
16,800 gallons) of olive-oil. This is kept in tanks and cisterns,
and they export thereof to other countries. It is said that drought
never visits the soil of Syria. Jerusalem is a city set on a hill,
and there is no water therein, except what falls in rain. The
villages round have springs of water, but the Holy City has no
springs. The city is enclosed by strong walls of stone, mortared,
and there are iron gates. Round about the city there are no
trees, for it is all built on the rock. Jerusalem is a very great
city, and at the time of my visit it contained a population of
some twenty thousand men. It has high, well built, and clean
bazaars. All the streets are paved with slabs of stone ; and
wheresoever there was a hill or a height, they have cut it down
and made it level, so that as soon as the rain falls (the water runs
off), and the whole place is washed clean. There are in the
city numerous artificers, and each craft has a separate bazaar."
(N. Kh., 23, 24.) ,
JERUSALEM. 89
THE AKSA MOSQUE.
The great mosque of Jerusalem, Al Masjid al Aksa, the
" Further Mosque," derives its name from the traditional Night
Journey of Muhammad, to which allusion is made in the words of
the Kuran (xvii. i) : "I declare the glory of Him who transported
His servant by night from the Masjid al Haram (the Mosque
at Makkah) to the Masjid al Aksa (the Further Mosque) at
Jerusalem " the term " Mosque " being here taken to denote the
whole area of the 'Noble Sanctuary, and not the Main-building of
the Aksa only, which, in the Prophet's days, did not exist.
According to the received account, Muhammad was on this
occasion mounted on the winged steed called Al Burak " the
Lightning " and, with the angel Gabriel for escort, was carried
from Makkah, first to Sinai, and then to Bethlehem, after which
they came to Jerusalem. " And when we reached Bait al Makdis,
the Holy City," so runs the tradition, "we came to the gate of
the mosque (which is the Haram Area), and here Jibrail caused
me to dismount. And he tied up Al Burak to a ring, to which
the prophets of old had also tied their steeds." (Ibn al Athir's
Chronicle, ii. 37.) Entering the Haram Area by the gateway,
afterwards known as the Gate of the Prophet, Muhammad and
Gabriel went up to the Sacred Rock, which of old times had
stood in the centre of Solomon's Temple ; and in its neighbour-
hood meeting the company of the prophets, Muhammad pro-
ceeded to perform his prayer-prostrations in the assembly of his
predecessors in the prophetic office Abraham, Moses, Jesus,
and ethers of God's ancient apostles. From the Sacred Rock
Muhammad, accompanied by Gabriel, next ascended, by a ladder
of light, up into heaven ; and, in anticipation, was vouchsafed the
sight of the delights of Paradise. Passing through the seven
heavens, Muhammad ultimately stood in the presence of Allah,
from whom he received injunctions as to the prayers his followers
were to perform. Thence, after a while, he descended again to
earth ; and, alighting at the foot of the ladder of light, stood
again on the Sacred Rock at Jerusalem. The return journey
homeward was made after the same fashion on the back of the
90 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
steed Al Burak and the Prophet reached Makkah again before
the night had waned.* Such, in outline, is the tradition of the
Prophet's Night Journey, which especially sanctifies the Rock and
the Haram Area in the sight of all true believers.
After the capitulation of Jerusalem to 'Omar in 635 (A.H 14),
that Khalif caused a mosque to be built on what was considered
to be the ancient site of the Temple (or Masjid) of David.
The traditional position of this site, 'Omar (as it is stated)
verified, by the re-discovery of the Rock concealed under a dung-
hill from the description that had been given to him, 'Omar,
by the Prophet, of the place where he had made his prayer-
prostrations in Jerusalem on the occasion of his Night-Journey.
The traditional accounts of 'Omar's discovery of the Rock will
be given later on. It should, however, be here noted that none
of the earlier Arab annalists (such as Biladhuri, or Tabari) record
any details of the building, by 'Omar, of the Aksa Mosque. In
the early days of Islam namely, under 'Omar and his successors,
down to the settlement of the Khalifate, in the family of the
Omayyads, at Damascus mosques were, without doubt, con-
structed of wood and sun-dried bricks, and other such perishable
materials. Hence, of the buildings erected in 'Omar's days, pro-
bably but little remained, half a century later, to be incorporated
in the magnificent stone mosque erected by the orders of the
Omayyad Khalif, 'Abd al Malik, about the year 690 (A.H. 72).
It seems probable, also, that this latter Khalif, when he began to
rebuild the Aksa, made use of the materials which lay to hand in
the ruins of the great St. Mary Church of Justinian, which must
originally have stood on the site, approximately, on which the Aksa
Mosque was afterwards raised. Possibly, in the substructures still
to be seen at the south-east corner of the Aksa, we have the
remains of Justinian's church, described by Procopiusf as erected
* Further details of the traditional account of this celebrated Night Journey
may be read in chapter xii. of Washington Irving's Life of Mahomet. In the
commentaries on the Kuran, the account found in the Ibn al Athir and the
other chroniclers is considerably amplified.
f See Palestine Pilgrim's Text Society, Procopins, p. 138. The subject is
ably discussed in Professor Hayter-Lewis' recent work, The Holy Places of
Jerusalem, chapter iv., where all the authorities are cited.
JERUSALEM. 91
in 560 A.D., and burnt down in 614 by Chosroes II. during the
-reat Persian raid through Syria, which laid most of the Christian
buildings of the Holy Land in ruins. Perhaps also the remarkable
silence of all the Arab writers in regard to the date of 'Abd al
Malik's rebuilding of the Aksa may be taken as an indirect proof
that that Khalif did not erect the edifice from its foundations,
but that he made use of the remains of the St. Mary Church
(where 'Omar had raised his primitive mosque), incorporating
these into the new Aksa, which thus rose on the ruins of the
Christian edifice.
However this may be, the Chronicles make no mention of the
date or fact of 'Abd al Malik's rebuilding of the Aksa Mosque,
and the earliest detailed description of the same is that given
by Mukaddasi in 985, some three centuries after 'Abd al Malik's
days. Of the Dome of the Rock, on the other hand, we possess
detailed accounts in the older authorities, describing both the
foundation in A.H. 72 (691), and the general appearance the Dome
presented as early as the third century of the Hijrah. It would
appear as though the Arab chroniclers and the travellers who
visited the Haram Area at this period were more impressed by
the magnificence of the Dome of the Rock than by the Main-
building of the Aksa Mosque, of which the Dome of the Rock,
in fact, was but an adjunct. Previous to Mukaddasi's account,
what we know of the history of the Aksa Mosque may be sum
marized as follows : According to tradition, in or about the year
635 (A.H. 14), 'Omar erected a mosque (probably of wood)
at Jerusalem.* Presumably about the year 691 (A.H. 72), the
* In so far as I have been able to discover, the earliest mention of 'Omar's
building a mosque in Jerusalem is the account found in the Chronicle of the
Byzantine historian Theophanes. The following is a translation from the
Greek which will be found on p. 524, vol. i., of the Chronographia (Bonn,
!839) = " Anno Mundi 6135, Anno Domini 635. In this year Omar began to
restore the Temple at Jerusalem, for the building, in truth, no longer then stood
firmly founded, but had fallen to ruin. Now when Omar inquired the cause,
the Jews answered saying: ' Unless thou throw down the Cross, which stands
on the Mount of Olives, the building of the Temple will never be firmly
founded.' Thereupon Omar threw clown the Cross at that place, in order that
the building (of the Temple) might be made firm ; and for the sa ne cause
innumerable crosses in other quarters these enemies of Christ did likewise
92 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Omayyad Khalif 'Abd al Malik rebuilt the Aksa Mosque (vide
Mukaddasi and Suyuti). In 746 (A.H. 130), an earthquake is
said to have thrown down the greater part of the Aksa. Of
this earthquake, and the damage caused by it, the earliest
detailed account I have been able to find is that (see below)
given by the author of the Muthir, who is, however, a late
authority, namely, A.D. 1351. The early Chronicles of Tabari
and of Ibn al Athir make no mention of this earthquake of
A.D. 746, though Mukaddasi (985) alludes in general terms to the
earthquake which had thrown down the Aksa in the days of the
Abbasides. If the date of the earthquake, AH. 130 (746), be
correct, it should be noted in passing that this was two years
before the overthrow of the Damascus Khalifate ; since it w r as only
in A.H. 132 that As Saffah conquered his Omayyad rival, and
founded the dynasty of the Abbasides, who shortly after this
transferred their seat of government from Damascus in Syria to
Baghdad on the Tigris.
The account referred to above, as given by the author of the
Muthir, of the earthquakes is as follows :*
"On the authority of 'Abd ar Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn
Mansur ibn Thabit, from his father, who had it from his father
and grandfather. In the days of 'Abd al Malik, all the gates of the
mosque were covered with plates of gold and of silver. But in the
reign of the Khalif Al Mansur, both the eastern and the western
portions of the mosque had fallen down. Then it was reported to
the Khalif, saying, ' O commander of the faithful, verily the earth-
quake in the year 130 (A.D. 746) did throw down the eastern part
of the mosque and the western part also ; now, therefore, do thou
give orders to rebuild the same and raise it again.' And the
overthrow." Theophanes was born in 751, and wrote his Chronicle towards
the close of the eighth century A.D. (he died in 818 A.D., 203 A.H.), and he is
therefore prior by more than half a century to the earliest Arab authorities.
His youth is separated by considerably under a century and a half from the
date of Omar's conquest of Jerusalem.
* The Arabic text of this passage, collated from several MSS. in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, is printed in my paper in the J. R. A. S., new series,
xix., p. 304. The passage is copied verbatim by Suyuti (in 1470), and again
by Mujir ad Din (in 1496) ; see p. 250 of the Cairo text of the latter author.
JERUSALEM. 93
Khalif replied that as there were no moneys in his treasury, (to
supply the lack of coin) they should strip off the plates of gold
and of silver that overlaid the gates. So they stripped these off
and coined therefrom Dinars and Dirhams, which moneys were
expended on the rebuilding of the mosque until it was completed.
Then occurred a second earthquake, and the building that Al
Mansur had commanded to be built fell to the ground. In the
days of the Khalif Al Mahdi, who succeeded him, the mosque
was still lying in ruins, which, being reported to him, he com-
manded them to rebuild the same. And the Khalif said that the
mosque had been (of old) too narrow, and of too great length
and (for this reason) it had not been much used by the people
so now (in rebuilding it) they should curtail the length and in-
crease the breadth. Now the restoration of the mosque was
completed on the new plan during the days of his Khalifate."
From this account we learn that in A.H. 130 the Aksa was thrown
down by earthquake and rebuilt by the Khalif Al Mansur. This
restoration by Al Mansur probably took place about the year A.H. 154
(771), for in that year the Chronicles of Tabari and of Ibn al Athir
inform us that Al Mansur visited Jerusalem, and prayed in the
mosque.* The Chronicles, however, be it noted, make no mention
of Al Mansur's restoration of the building : this we only read in
the account given by the author of the Muthir. According to this
latter author a second earthquake (of which, however, apparently no
mention is made in any of the Chronicles) laid Al Mansur's build-
ing in ruins ; and afterwards the Khalif Al Mahdi, his successor,
rebuilt the Aksa a second time, making it on this occasion broader
and shorter. Of Al Mahdi's restoration, as in the former case,
no mention is found in the Chronicles. If, however, the authority
of the Muthir is to be accepted for the fact, we should place this
second restoration in or about the year 780 (A.H. 163), for in that
year, according to Tabari, f the Khalif Al Mahdi went to Jerusalem
and made his prayers in the Aksa Mosque, and he would then
doubtless have had the ruined condition of the building brought
under his notice.
* Tabari, Series III., p. 372 ; Ibn al Athir, vol. v., p. 467.
f Tabari, Series III., p. 500.
94 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
From about the year A.D. 780, when the Aksa was restored in
Al Mahdi's reign, down to 985 when Mukaddasi describes it, as
far as is known from the historians, no accident befell the mosque.
Shortly before this, however, " a colonnade supported on marble
pillars," as we learn from Mukaddasi, had been erected by the
celebrated 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir, for many years independent
Governor of Khurasan and the East. Of the appearance of the
Aksi previous to Mukaddasi's date, the early geographers tell us
next to nothing. What little is noted by them will be given on a
subsequent page, where the accounts are translated in extenso.
Before, however, these passages are laid before the reader, and
in order that he may rightly understand the descriptions which the
early Muslim writers have left of the Noble Sanctuary, with the
buildings of the Aksa and the Dome of the Rock, it will be
necessary to enter into rome explanations of the Arab and technical
usage of the word " mosque." The main characteristics of the
primitive Arab mosque are well exemplified in the accompanying
plan representing the Jami' of Ibn Tulun. This is the oldest
mosque in Cairo, having been erected by Ahmad ibn Tulun about
the year 879 (265 A.H.)
As here seen in its simplest form, the mosque primarily consisted
of an open courtyard, within which, and round its four walls, ran
colonnades or cloisters, to give shelter to the worshippers. On the
side of the court towards the Kiblah (in the direction of Makkah),
and facing which the worshipper must stand and kneel during
prayers, the colonnade, instead of being single, is, for the con-
venience of the increased numbers of the congregation, widened
out to form the Jami', or " place of assembly." In the case of Ibn
Tulun's Mosque, five rows of columns, with the boundary-wall,
form the five transverse aisles (A to a). In the centre of the
boundary- wall on the Makkah side is set the great Mihrab of the
mosque (a), indicating the direction of the Kiblah. Now in all
descriptions of a mosque it is taken for granted that the visitor is
standing in the Court (as Satin} of the mosque, and facing the
Kiblah. Fronting him therefore is the Main-building, called the
"covered-part" (al Mughatta), or the " fore-part " (at Mukaddamah}
of the mosque (A to a) ; while in his rear is the colonnade (B),
JERUSALEM.
95
single or double, against the wall of the courtyard, furthest from
the Makkah-side, and this is called the " back " of the mosque
(al Mitakhkharali). The " right-hand side " of the mosque is in
the neighbourhood of the colonnades (C), along the wall on the
right of the Court when you face the Mihrab, and the " left-hand
side " is on the opposite side (D). In the Court (as Sahn) thus
OUTER COURT
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IN OLD CAIRO
enclosed, are often other buildings, such as tombs or minor
chapels. In the Mosque of Ibn Tulun there is a domed building
(E), originally intended to serve as the mausoleum of the founder,
but which, as he died far away in Syria, was subsequently fitted
up with a water-tank to serve as a place for the ablution before
prayer.
96 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Turning now to the Arab descriptions of the Haram Area at
Jerusalem, the point it is of importance to remember is that the
term Masjid (whence through the Egyptian pronunciation of
Masgid, and the Spanish Mezquita, our word " mosque v ) applies
to the whole of the Haram Area, not to the Aksa alone. Masjid
in Arabic means " a place of prostration (in prayer) ;" and therefore
to revert once again to Ibn Tulun's Mosque, (i) the Main-
building, A ; (2) the Court, and (3) the Colonnades at the back,
B ; with those (4) to the right, C ; to the left, D ; as also (5) the
Dome E in the Court one and all form essential parts of the
mosque, and are all comprehended by the term " Al Masjid. '
Bearing these points in mind, and coming to the Noble
Sanctuary at Jerusalem, we find that the term "Masjid," as
already stated, is commonly applied not only to the Aksa Mosque
(more properly they*?////', or "place of assembly," for prayer), but
to the w r hole enclosure of the great Court, with the Dome of the
Rock in the middle, and all the other minor domes, and chapels,
and colonnades. The Dome of the Rock (misnamed by the
Franks " the Mosque of 'Omar "), is not itself a mosque or place
for public prayer, but merely the largest of the many cupolas in
the Court of the Mosque, and in this instance was built to cover
and do honour to the Holy Rock which lies beneath it.
Great confusion is introduced into the Arab descriptions of the
Noble Sanctuary by the indiscriminate use of the terms Al Masjid
or Al Masjid al Aksd,Jami' or Jami al Aksa ; and nothing but an
intimate acquaintance with the locality described will prevent a
translator, ever and again, misunderstanding the text he has
before him since the native authorities use the technical terms in
an extraordinarily inexact manner, often confounding the whole,
and its part, under the single denomination of " Masjid." Further,
the usage of various writers differs considerably on these points :
Mukaddasi invariably speaks of the whole Haram Area as Al
Masjid, or as Al Masjid al Aksa, "the Aksa Mosque," or "the
mosque," while the Main-building of the mosque, at the south
end of the Haram Area, which we generally term the Aksa, he
refers to as Al Mnghatta, " the Covered-part." Thus he writes
" the mosque is entered by thirteen gates," meaning the gates of
JERUSALEM. 97
the Haram Area. So also "on the right of the court," means
along the west wall of the Haram Area ; " on the left side " means
the east wall ; and " at the back " denotes the northern boundary
wall of the Haram Area.
Nasir-i-Khusrau, who wrote in Persian, uses for the Main-building
of the Aksa. Mosque the Persian word Pushish, that is, " Covered-
part," which exactly translates the Arabic Al Mughatta. On some
occasions, however, the Aksa Mosque (as we call it) is spoken of
by Nasir as the Maksurah, a term used especially to denote the
railed-off oratory of the Sultan, facing the Mihrab, and hence in
an extended sense applied to the building which includes the
same. The great Court of the Haram Area, Nasir always speaks
of as the Masjid^ or the Mas/id al Aksa, or again as the Friday
Mosque (Masjid-i-Jum'ati).
In the presence of this ambiguity of terms, I have thought it
better to translate Al Masjid and the various other phrases by
" the Haram Area," or " the Noble Sanctuary," in the one case, and
by " the Aksa Mosque " in the other, as circumstances demanded,
and in accordance with the context ; in order thus to render the
translation perfectly clear to European readers. It may be added
that Muslim authorities speak in the same loose way of "the
Rock," when they really mean " the Dome of the Rock " (Kubbat
as Sakhrah] which covers the same ; but this, after all, is only as we
speak of the " Holy Sepulchre," meaning " the Church," which is
built over it. In concluding these preliminary remarks, attention
is directed to the fact that the Kiblah, denoting the point of the
compass towards Makkah, is in Syria used approximately as
synonymous with "south." In Egypt, as will be seen in the plan
of Ibn Tulun's Mosque, the Kiblah points east. The Kiblah point
in a mosque is indicated by a niche in the (Jami') wall, generally
finely ornamented, called the Mihrab. Besides the great Mihrab
of the mosque, there are often numerous other and minor Mihrabs
(prayer niches or oratories), just as in a Catholic church there are
many minor altars and chapels in addition to the high altar of the
chancel.
Descriptions of the Aksa Mosque. During the hundred years
that preceded Mukaddasi's date, Syria and Palestine had become
7
^8 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
lost to the Baghdad Khalifs. In 878 (264) Ahmad ibn Tulun,
their viceroy at Cairo, had asserted his independence, seized on
Egypt and conquered the whole of Syria. The rule of the
Tulunides lasted in Southern Syria and Palestine till 934, when their
power was transferred to the Ikhshidis, who, in turn, were driven
out of Egypt and Syria by the Fatimite Khalif Al Mu'izz in 969 ;
and it was under the rule of his successor, Al 'Aziz, that Mukad-
dasi wrote his description of Jerusalem in 985.
Mukaddasi's account of the Aksa Mosque at this date is as
follows :
"The Masjid al Aksa (the Further Mosque with the Haram
Area) lies at the south-eastern corner of the Holy City. The
stones of the foundations of the Haram Area wall, which were
laid by David, are ten ells, or a little less, in length. They are
chiselled (or drafted}, finely faced, and jointed, and of hardest
material. On these the Khalif 'Abd al Malik subsequently built,
using smaller but well-shaped stones, and battlements are added
above. This mosque is even more beautiful than that of
Damascus, for during the building of it they had for a rival and
as a comparison the great Church (of the Holy Sepulchre) be-
longing to the Christians at Jerusalem, and they built this to be
even more magnificent than that other. But in the days of the
Abbasides occurred the earthquakes,* which threw down most of
the Main-building (al Mughatta, which is the Aksa Mosque) ; all,
in fact, except that portion which is round the Mihrab. Now
when the Khalif of that day (who was Al Mahdi) obtained news
of this, he inquired and learned that the sum at that time in the
treasury would in no wise suffice to restore the mosque. So he
wrote to the governors of the provinces, and to all the commanders,
that each should undertake the building of a colonnade. The
order was carried out, and the edifice rose firmer and more sub-
stantial than ever it had been in former times. The more ancient
portion remained, even like a beauty spot, in the midst of the
new, and it extends as far as the limit of the marble columns ; for
beyond, where the columns are of concrete, the later building
commences. The Main-building of the Aksa Mosque has twenty-
* See p. 92.
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JERUSALEM. 99
six doors. The door (D) opposite to the Mihrab is called the
Great Brazen Gate ; it is plated with brass gilt, and is so heavy that
only, a man strong of shoulder and of arm can turn it on its hinges.
To the right hand of this (Great Gate) are seven large doors, the
midmost covered with gilt plates ; and after the same manner there
are seven doors to the left. And further, on the eastern side (of
the Aksa), are eleven doors unornamented. Over the first-
mentioned doors, fifteen in number, is a colonnade (C, C) sup-
ported on marble pillars, lately erected by 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir.*
" On the right-hand side of the Court (that is along the West .
Wall of the Haram Area) are colonnades supported by marble
pillars and pilasters ' and on the back (or North Wall of the
Haram Area) are colonnades vaulted in stone. The centre part of
the Main-building (of the Aksa) is covered by a mighty roof, high-
pitched and gable-wise, over which rises a magnificent dome.
The ceilings everywhere except those of the colonnades at the
back (along the North Wall of the Haram Area) are covered
with lead in sheets ; but in these (northern) colonnades the ceilings
are made of mosaics studded-in.
" On the left (or east side of the Haram Area) there are no
colonnades. The Main-building of the (Aksa) Mosque does not
come up to the Eastern Wall of the Haram Area, the building here,
as it is said, never having been completed. Of the reason for this
they give two accounts. The one is, that the Khalif 'Omar com-
manded the people to erect a building * in the western part of the
Area, as a place of prayer for Muslims ;' and so they left this space
(which is towards the south-eastern angle) unoccupied, in order not
to go counter to his injunction. The other reason given is, that itfl/
was not found possible to extend the Main-building of the (Aksa)
Mosque as far as the south-east angle of the Area Wall, lest the
(great) Mihrab, in the centre-place at the end of the Mosque,
should not then have stood opposite the Rock under the Dome ;
and such a case was repugnant to them. But Allah alone knows
the truth." (Muk., 168-171.)
On a subsequent page Mukaddasi gives an account of the Talis-
* Independent Governor of Khurasan and the East from 828 to 844. He
was third in succession of the Tahiride Dynasty.
72
ioo PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
man in the Aksa ; and Al Biruni,* writing in 1000 (A.M. 390), a
few years later than Mukaddasi, also mentions having seen these
curious writings ; Mukaddasi's notice is as follows :
" In the Holy City there is a Talisman against the bite of
serpents, the same being the inscription on the marble slab behind
the Pulpit of the Great Mosque, where is cut in the surface
the words : Mohammad is Allah's Apostle and, again, In the
name of Allah the Merciful, the Compassionate" (Muk., 186.)
Ibn al Fakih, who wrote (903) about eighty years before
Mukaddasi, has the following note on this Talisman. He also,
as will be noted, speaks of the Maksurahs, or spaces in the
Mosque railed-off for the accommodation of the women ; the
dimensions, however, that are recorded (70 or 80 ells by 50,
equivalent to 120 feet by 75) make it difficult to understand
how these could have been inside the Aksa. Perhaps, therefore,
the Aksa must here again be taken to mean the whole Haram
Area, and then the Maksurahs may have stood in the outer court.
The account of Ibn 'Abd Rabbin, a contemporary (913), confirms
this. Ibn al Fakih writes :
" To the right of the Mihrab (of the Aksa) is a slab on which, in a
circle, is written the name of Muhammad the blessing of Allah
be upon him ! and on a white stone behind the Kiblah (wall, to
the south) is an inscription in the following words : In the name of
Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate, Muhammad is Allah's
Apostle, and Hamzah was his helper. Now, within the (Aksa)
Mosque are three Maksurahs for the women, each Maksurah being
70 ells in length." (I. F., ioo.)
On the subject of the Maksurahs Ibn 'Abd Rabbih's statement
is that :
" In the Mosque (Al Aksa) are three Maksurahs for the women,
the length of each Maksurah being 80 ells, and its breadth 50."
(I. R., iii. 367.)
It will be seen that Mukaddasi, writing in 985 A.D., describes the
Aksa Mosque of his day as having fifteen doorways opening to the
north, and eleven opening to the east. The plan of the Aksa
must then have been very different from that of the present build-
* Ath&r al Bdkiyah. Sachau's translation, p. 294.
JERUSALEM. 101
ing, as may be seen by a reference to the illustrations facing pp. 99
and no.* In 1016 (A.H. 407) and 1034 (A.H. 425), as we learn
from the Chronicles of Ibn al Athir, Syria was visited by
destructive earthquakes. He writes :
" In 407 the Great Dome fell down upon the Rock (as Sakhrah)
in Jerusalem."f And again : " In 425 earthquakes were many in
both Egypt and Syria. The most destructive was that felt at
Ar Ramlah. The people abandoned their houses there during
many days ; a third of the town was thrown down, and many
persons were killed under the ruins."J
Of the destruction at Ar Ramlah we shall speak subsequently
(see Chapter VIII.). Considerable damage was also done by the
earthquake of the year 425 to the outer wall of the Haram Area,
and an extant inscription in situ records the date of the restoration
carried out here by order of the Fatimite Khalif Adh Dhahir. The
text of the inscription copied from a stone in the wall of the
Haram Area, is given by M. de Vogiie in his magnificent work on
Le Temple de Jerusalem (p. 77). He states it may still be clearly
read, though in a rather dilapidated condition, on two of the
battlements near the Cradle of Jesus, at the south-east Angle.
The translation of this inscription is as follows :
"... the days of the Imam adh Dhahir It 'fzdz ad Din Allah, the
Commander of the Faithful . . . (words illegible) . . . the southern
outer ivall and the . . . (eastern ?) outer wall . . . year four
hundred and twenty-five"
That the Aksa Mosque was also seriously damaged at this
period is proved by an inscription that was read a hundred and
forty years after this date, on the ceiling of the Dome of the
Aksa by 'AH of Herat, who visited the Holy City in 1173, while
the place was still in the hands of the Crusaders. This inscrip-
tion is apparently no longer to be seen at least, M. de Vogiie
makes no mention of it in his work. Possibly, however, it might
* For the first idea of the plans facing pp. 99 and 106, lam indebted to Professor
Hayter-Lewis (see his paper in the Palestine Exploration Fund " Quarterly
Statement " for January, 1887). My plans, however, differ slightly from his,
being drawn to scale on the measurements given by Nasir-i-Khusrau of the
Mosque as he saw it in 1047.
f Ibn al Athir, vol. ix. f p. 209. % Idem, vol. ix., p. 298.
102 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
still be discovered were careful search instituted,* for 'Ali of
Herat's account is very circumstantial, as will be seen by the
following translation :
"The Aksa Mosque. In this Mosque is the Mihrab of the
Khalif 'Omar ; the Franks have not done it any damage. On
the roof I read the following inscription : In the ?iame of
Allah the Compassionate, the Merciful. Praise to Him who
brought His servant (Muhammad} by night from the Masjid al
Haram (at Makkah] to the Masjid al Aksa (at Jerusalem), on
the precincts of which we invoke a blessing. May Allah give aid to
His servant and vicar, 'Ali Abu-l Hasan adh Dhahir-li- 2zazi-dm-
Allah, the Commander of the Faithful. Allah's benediction be upon
him and upon his immaculate forefathers, and upon his beneficent
sons / For the restoration of this same Dome and its gilding,
hath given command our illustrious and dear lord, the chosen servant
of the Commander of the Faithful, and his devoted servant, Abu-l
Kasim 'Ali ibn Ahmad Allah give him aid and protection ! The
whole of this (restoratio?i) was accomplished by the last day of the
month Dhu-l Ka'adah, of the year 426 : he who (superintended) the
building of the same being ' Abd Allah ibn al Hasan of Cairo, the
architect. This inscription, as well as the porticoes," says 'Ali,
" are all done over with mosaics of gold, and these the Franks
have not touched or in any way damaged."
The description of the Aksa in 985 by Mukaddasi is, in the
main, identical with that given by Nasir, who visited Jerusalem
sixty years later (1047), and the two accounts taken together enable
us to gain a very exact idea of the appearance of the Great
Mosque before the arrival of the Crusaders. The chief difference
between the Mosque as described by Mukaddasi and that seen by
Nasir lies in the number of gates. Mukaddasi says there were in
his day fifteen gates to the north, and eleven to the east; while the
Persian pilgrim describes only seven gates to the north, and
ten opening east. Further, Nasir makes no mention of the
* My translation is from the MS. in the Bodleian, at fol. 36, verso. With
a view of the possible recovery of this inscription, I have printed the Arabic
text in the Palestine Exploration Fund " Quarterly Statement " for October,
1888, p. 280.
JERUSALEM. 103
colonnade built by Ibn Tahir, which, according to Mukaddasi,
formed a portico to the gates opening north.
The earthquakes of the years 407 (1016) and 425 (1034),
which took place between the dates of the visits of Mukaddasi
and Nasir, must account for these changes. Ibn Tahir's colon-
nade doubtless fell, and the North Wall of the Aksa, weak as
it was by the apertures pierced in it for the fifteen gates, must have
suffered much damage. When the walls were restored aftei
the earthquakes, five gates (instead of fifteen) were left in the
North Wall, and in the East Wall one of Mukaddasi's eleven gates
was presumably blocked, leaving the ten open as seen by Nasir.
Nasir states there were in the Mosque 280 columns. These, in
a small degree, would recall the forest of columns we see in the
great Omayyad Mosque at Cordova at this present day the
Cathedral. That the Aksa was not unlike the Cordovan
Mosque may be inferred from Idrisi's mention (see p. 108) of the
two together for the purposes of a comparison of their respective
sizes. The Cordovan Mosque, begun in 786 A.D., and finished by
the two successors of the Spanish Khalif 'Abd ar Rahman L,
shows at the present day no fewer than 850 columns in a space
that measures 534 feet by 387. In other words, the Spanish
Mosque is more than double the area of the Aksa in Nasir's days
(as we shall see by the figures immediately to be quoted), and the
Cordovan building must have contained just over three times the
number of columns to be seen in 1047 in the Great Mosque
at Jerusalem.*
To return, however, to the description of the Aksa. It will be
noticed that the number of the columns, stated by Nasir at 280,
divides up very well to form the fourteen minor aisles going south,
towards the Kiblah, from the fourteen minor gates in the North
* The Cordovan Mosque had originally eleven longitudinal aisles, eight more
being added on the east side by the Khalif Hisham. In its first design, there-
fore, this Mosque was more like the Aksa even than it came to be after the
later additions. There were in the Spanish Mosque over thirty rows of
columns originally, doubtless perfectly symmetrically arranged. At the present
day many columns are lacking and set out of place, to accommodate the mon-
strous Gothic chapel which was built in Charles V.'s days. (See Momimentos
Arabes, por Rafael Contreras, Madrid, 1878, p. 42.)
104 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Wall, as described by Mukaddasi. I, therefore, take it for granted
that in Mukaddasi's time also there were these twenty rows of
columns, standing 6 ells (12 feet) apart, with fourteen columns in
each row, and it is on this data that the two plans facing pp. 99
and 1 06 have been drawn.
Nasir is the first to give us the exact dimensions of the Aksa.
Twice over, he says that the East Wall that is, the length of the
Mosque from north to south measured "four hundred and twenty
cubits " while the width along the North Wall was " 150 cubits."*
The width of 150 cubits, or 300 feet, tallies well enough with the
remainder of Nasir's description, and with what is known from
Mukaddasi and modern measurements in the Haram Area. The
length of 420 cubits, however, equivalent to 840 feet, is an
impossible dimension ; for this, measuring from the great South
Wall of the Haram Area, would bring the Northern Gates and
Wall of the Aksa over the Dome of the Rock and the Platform.
Without any great likelihood of error, we should, I think, read
" 120 " for the 420. This, being 240 feet, would bring the North
Wall and Gates of Nasir's Mosque on the same line as the
Gates and North Wall (inside the porch) of the present Mosque.
Considerable portions of the extant walls between the Northern
Gates show at the present day (according to M. de Vogue)
unmistakable traces of ancient structure. (See the plan drawn in
De Vogue's Jerusalem, plate xxx., and the plan facing p. no.) And
this confirms the hypothesis that we have in the modern walls the
line still unaltered of the ancient North Wall of the Mosque as it
has existed since the days when, on Al Mahdi's restoration, the
building was shortened in the length, and made broader in
the width. (See p. 93.)
Nasir's measurements of the open space between the south-east
Angle of the Haram Area and the East Wall of the Aksa, namely,
"200 ells " (see next page) is, in round numbers, exact, for the
measurement would, as near as may be, have been 400 feet, if
we draw the plan to scale on the figures given in the foregoing
paragraphs.
The following is a translation of Nasir-i-Khusrau's description of
the Aksa Mosque in 1047 :
* Seep. 106.
JERUSALEM. 105
" The Friday Mosque (which is the Aksa) lies on the east
side of the city, and (as before noticed) one of the walls of
the Mosque (Area) is on the Wadi Jahannum. When you
examine this wall, which is on the Wadi, from the outside of
the Haram Area, you may see that for the space of 100 cubits it is
built up of huge stones, set without mortar or cement. Inside the
Mosque (Area) the summit of this wall is perfectly level. The
(Aksa) Mosque occupies the position it does because of the
Rock As Sakhrah." (N. Kh., 26.)
After describing the Cradle of Jesus (see Chapter V.), Nasir
continues :
"Then passing the entrance to this Mosque (of the Cradle
of Jesus) near the (south-eastern) Angle of the East Wall (of
the Haram Area), you come to a great and beautiful Mosque,
which is other than that called the Cradle of Jesus, and is of many
times its size. This is called the Masjid al Aksa (or the Further
Mosque), and it is that to which Allah be He exalted and
glorified ! brought His chosen (Apostle) in the Night Journey
from Makkah, and from here caused him to ascend up into
Heaven, even as is adverted to in the words of the Kuran:
Glory be to Him who carried His servant by night from the
Masjid al Haram (the sacred Mosque at Makkah} to the Masjid al
Aksa (the Mosque that is more Remote at Jerusalem), whose
precinct we have blessed* On this spot they have built, with
utmost skill, a Mosque. Its floor is spread with beautiful carpets,
and special servants are appointed for its service to serve therein
continually.
" From the (south-east) Angle, and along the South Wall (of the
Haram Area) for the space of 200 ells (or 400 feet), there is no
building, and this is part of the Court (of the Haram Area). The
Main-building (of the Aksa Mosque)f is very large, and contains
the Maksurah (or space railed-off for the officials), which is built
against the South Wall (of the Haram Area). The length of the
western side of the Main-building (of the Aksa) measures
* Kuran, ch. xvii., ver. I.
t In Persian Ptishtsh, "covered part," corresponding with the Arabic term
Mughattd, which has the same signification.
106 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
420 cubits (read 120 cubits), and the width of it is 150 cubits.*
The Aksa Mosque has 280 marble columns, supporting arches that
are fashioned of stone, and both the shafts and the capitals
are riveted with lead, so that nothing can be more firm.
Between the (rows of) columns measures 6 ells. The Mosque is
everywhere flagged with coloured marble, and the joints are
riveted in lead. The Maksurah (Plan, C, C) is facing the
centre of the South Wall (of the Mosque), and is of such size as
to contain sixteen columns. Above rises a mighty dome, that
is ornamented with enamel-work, after the fashion to be seen
in other parts of the Noble Sanctuary. In this place there is
spread Maghribi matting, and there are lamps and lanterns,
each suspended by its separate chain.
"The great Mihrab (or prayer-niche towards Makkah, Plan, G)
is adorned with enamel-work ;f and on either side the Mihrab are
two columns of marble, of the colour of red cornelian. The
whole of the low wall round the Maksurah is built of coloured
marble. To the right (of the great Mihrab) is the Mihrab of (the
Khalif ) Mu'awiyah (Plan, F), and to the left is the Mihrab of (the
Khalif ) 'Omar (Plan, H) May Allah grant him acceptance ! The
roof of the (Aksa) Mosque is constructed of wood, beautifully
sculptured. Outside the doors and walls of the Maksurah, and
in the parts facing (north and east) towards the Court (of the
Haram Area), are fifteen gateways, each of which is closed by a
finely-wrought door, measuring 10 ells in height by 6 ells in the
breadth. Ten of these doorways open in the (east) wall (of the
Mosque), which is 420 cubits in length (read 120 cubits), and
there are five in the width (or north wall) of the Mosque, which
measures 150 cubits in length. Among these gates there is one
* These are the figures in the British Museum MS., which are also those of
M. Schefer's French translation. His text, however, runs as follows, and
differs both from his translation and the text of the British Museum MS.: "The
main building of the (Aksa) Mosque is very large. The length is four hundred
and eight cubits, and the MaksCirah lies to the right hand, against the South
"Wall. The western side of the Main-building measures four hundred and fifty
cubits in the width." My reasons for substituting 120 for 420 are given on
p. 104.
f The present Mihrab only dates from the time of Saladin ; see p. 109.
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JERUSALEM. 107
of brass, most finely wrought and beautiful ; so that one would
say it was of gold, set in with fired silver (nieilo ?), and chased.*
The name of the Khalif Al Mainun is upon it, and they relate
that Al Mamun sent it from Baghdad.! When all these gates of
the Mosque are set open, the interior of the building is light,
even as though it were a court open to the sky. When there is
wind and rain they close these gates, and then the light comes
from the windows (above). Along all the four sides of the Main-
building (of the Aksa Mosque) are chests that belong each one
to a certain city of Syria and 'Irak, and near these the Mujawiran
(or pilgrims who are residing for a time in the Holy City) take
their seat, even as is done in the Haram Mosque at Makkah.
May Allah be He glorified ! ennoble the same." (N. Kh.,
34-38.)
On July 14, 1099, the Crusaders, under Godfrey de Bouillon,
became possessed of the Holy City. The Haram Area was given
over to the Knights of the recently-established Order of the
Temple, who derived their name from the Dome of the Rock,
which the Crusaders imagined to be the Temple of the days of
Christ, and hence named Templum Domini. The Aksa Mosque,
on the other hand, was known as the Palatium, or Templum
Salomonis. The Templars made considerable alterations in the
Aksa Mosque and the adjoining portions of the Haram Area, but
left the Dome of the Rock untouched. On the west of the Aksa,
along the south wall of the Haram Area, they built their armoury,
on the site occupied by the colonnades of arches described by
Nasir (see Chapter V.). In the substructions of the south-east
Angle of the Haram Area, to the west of the Cradle of Jesus, they
stabled their horses, using probably either the ancient "Triple
Gate," or the " Single Gate " (see Chapter V.), as the mode of
egress from these vaults.
The Sicilian geographer Idrisi, who lived at King Roger's Court,
* The Great Brass Gate mentioned by Mukaddasi ; see p. 99, Plan, D.
f M. Schefer is, I believe, incorrect when he states in a note to his translation
of Nasir-i-Khusrau's Sefer Nameh (p. 81, n. 2) that this inscription, of Al
Mamun, is still extant. It is certainly not to be found in M. de Vogue's
Jerusalem, p. 86, which is the reference given.
io8 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
has left the following short notice of the Aksa Mosque as it stood
in the early part of the twelfth century A.D. ; but, as has been
before stated (p. 7), it seems probable that Idrisi had never him-
self visited Jerusalem, and he must therefore have derived his in-
formation from books in King Roger's library, and the descriptions
given him by home-coming pilgrims. Idrisi reports as follows :
" On leaving the Great Church (of the Resurrection), and going
eastwards, you come to the holy house built by Solomon, the son
of David. This, in the time of the Jews, was a mosque (or house
of prayer), to which pilgrimage was made ; but it was taken out
of their hands, and they were driven from thence. And when the
days of Islam came, under the kings of the Muslims, the spot
came once more to be venerated as the Masjid al Aksa. , *
" The Masjid al Aksa is the Great Mosque (of Jerusalem), and <j/
in the whole earth there is no mosque of greater dimensions than
this, unless it be the Friday Mosque at Cordova, in Andalusia,
which they say has a greater extent of roof than has the Aksa,
only the court of the Aksa Mosque (or Haram Area) is certainly
larger than is that of the mosque at Cordova. (The Haram Area
of) the Masjid al Aksa is four-sided; its length measures 200
fathoms (&$'), and its breadth is 180 fathoms. In that half (of
the Haram Area) which lies (south) towards the Mihrab (or prayer-
niche) is (the Main-building of the Aksa Mosque), which is roofed
with domes of stone set on many rows of columns. The other
half (of the Haram Area) is an (open) court, and is not roofed
over. The gate of the Dome of the Rock to the south faces the
roofed-in portion (which is the Main-building of the Aksa), which
same was in former times the place of prayer of the Muslims
Since (the Holy City) was conquered by the Greeks (that is, the
Crusaders), and it hath remained in their hands even down to the
time of the writing of this book (in the year 1154 A.D.), they have
converted this roofed-in portion (which is the Main-building of the
Aksa Mosque) into chambers, wherein are lodged those companies
of men known as Ad Dawiyyah (the Templars), whose name
signifies Secants of God's House" (Id., 7.)
'AH of Herat, our next authority, writing a few years before
Saladin's reconquest of the Holy City, after noting the inscription
JERUSALEM. 109
set up by the Fatimite Khalif Adh Dhahir (see p. 102), gives
some details of the dimensions of the Aksa Mosque, which dimen-
sions agree fairly well with the modern measurements. The
" pace " he uses may be taken as approximately 30 inches, and
the " ell" is the royal ell of 18 inches.
Following on the description of the Cave under the Rock, 'AH
writes :
" The width of the Riwak (or main colonnade of the Aksa
Mosque?) is 15 paces; and its length, from south to north, is
94 paces (or 235 feet). The height of the Dome of the Aksa is
60 ells (90 feet), and its circumference is 96 ells (that is, 32 ells
diameter, or 48 feet). The perimetre of the square (under the
Dome) is 160 ells (each side being 40 ells, or 60 feet). The
length of the Aksa, from south to north, is 148 ells (or 222 feet)."
(A. H., Oxf. MS., f. 39.)
After Saladin's reconquest of the Holy City in 1187, the whole
of the Haram Area and its various buildings underwent a complete
restoration. The account given in the Chronicle of Ibn al Athir
of what was especially done in the Aksa Mosque is as follows* :
"Events of the year 583 (1187). When Saladin had taken
possession of the city and driven out the infidels, he commanded
that the buildings should be put back to their ancient usage. Now
the Templars had built to the west of the Aksa a building for
their habitation, and constructed there all that they needed of
granaries, and also latrines, with other such places, and they had
even enclosed a part of the Aksa in their new building. Saladin
commanded that all this should be set back to its former state,
and he ordered that the Masjid (or Harem Area) should be
cleansed, as also the Rock, from all the filth and the impurities
that were there. All this was executed as he commanded."
Over the Great Mihrab, in the Aksa Mosque, may still be read
the inscription set here by Saladin after this restoration was com-
pleted. The Arabic text is given by M. de Vogue* in Le Temple
de Jerusalem, p. 101. The translation of the same is as follows :
"/# the name of Allah the Compassionate, the Merciful ! Hath
ordered the repair of this holy Mihrab, and the restoration of the
* Ibn al Athir, vol. ix., p. 364.
no PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Aksa Mosque which was founded in piety the servant of Allah,
and His regent, Yusuf ibn Ayyub Abu-l Mudhaffar, the victorious
king, Salah ad Dunya wa ad Din (Saladin), after that Allah had
conquered (the City) by his hand during the month of the year 583.
And he asketh of Allah to inspire him with thankfulness for this
favour, and to make him a partaker of the remission (of sins), through
His mercy and forgiveness"
Subsequent to the Muslim reconquest of the Holy City, the
only mention made by the historians of any alterations in the Aksa
Mosque are those noted by Mujir ad Din. He states that the
south wall of the Haram Area, near the Mihrab of David, was re-
built by the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, Muhammad, son of Kala'un,
who reigned from 1310 to 1341. The same Prince also ordered
the south end of the Aksa to be lined with marble slabs, and
caused two windows to be pierced there, in the south wall, to right
and to left of the Great Mihrab. (M. a. D., 438.)
After the times of Saladin there is no detailed description of
the dimensions and appearance of the Aksa Mosque till we come
to that written by Mujir ad Din in 1496 ; and in his day the
Mosque was evidently identical with the one we now see. The
present Mosque (exactly like that described in 1496) has seven
gates to the north, and only one to the east. Two other gates,
on the western side, lead one into the court, and one into what
was, in Crusading days, the Templars' Armoury, sometimes
called Bakd'at al Baida (Plan, F, F'), and incorrectly Al Aksa al
Kadwiah (' the Ancient Aksa '), which Mujir ad Din names ' the
Women's Mosque.' Mujir ad Din's description is as follows :
" The Aksa Mosque measures in length north to south, from the
Great Mihrab to the threshold of the Great Gate opposite to it,
100 ells of the workman's ell (D/iira al 'Amal). This does not
include the bow of the Mihrab, nor the portico outside the northern
doors. The width from the Eastern Gate (C) through which
you go out to the Cradle of Jesus to the Western Gate, is 76 ells
of the workman's ell.* The Mosque has ten gates leading out to
the Court of the Haram Area. Seven are to the north, opening
* In the present plan these lines measure 230 feet by 170, giving for the
workman's ell 2-3 feet, and 2*24 feet roughly, z\ feet.
OPEN COURT OF HARAM AREA
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JERUSALEM. in
from each one of the seven aisles of the Mosque.* Then there is
the eastern door and the western door, and the door leading to
the building known as the Jami' an Nisa, ' the Mosque of the
Women ' (the Templars' Armoury, Plan, F, F'). Now from the
western part of the Aksa, there opens this great hall, called Jami'
an Nisa. It has a double aisle running east and west, roofed
by ten vaults, supported on nine piers, very solidly built. I
learn that this place was built during the days of the Fatimites."
(M.a. D, 367, 368.)
The last assertion is presumably in error, for the Templars'
Armoury does not date from Fatimite days.
Of the Mihrabs in the Aksa Mosque, Suyuti gives the following
notes, showing that in his day (1470) they stood exactly as they
do at present :
" The Mihrab of Zakariyya (Zacharias). Most agree that it is
that within the (Aksa) Mosque in the aisle (riwak\ near the
eastern door."
In the Muslim legend, "Zacharias, the son of Barachias, whom
ye slew between the temple and the altar" (St. Matth. xxiv. 35),
and Zachariah, the son of Jehoiada, the priest who was stoned
with stones at the "commandment of the king in the court of the
house of the Lord" (2 Chron. xxiv. 22), and Zacharias, the father
of John the Baptist, are all one and the same personage. The
Mihrab Zakariyya is still pointed out at the point D on the plan
of the Aksa Mosque.
Suyuti continues :
"The Mihrab of Mu'awiyah. This is said to be the beautiful
Mihrab which is at the present time enclosed within the Maksurah
(the part railed-off), for the preacher of the Khutbah (or Friday
.sermon). Between it and the great Mihrab comes the beautiful
pulpit. As to the Mihrab of 'Omar, people differ which this may
* The accompanying illustration of the north front and portico of the Aksa
represents the building as it stands at the present day. The gable or pitched
roof (called Jamalan, or " camel-backed " in Arabic), covering the central
nave, is here shown. This form of roof, according to Mukaddasi (see pp. 21
and 99), was peculiar to the Mosques in Syria ; in other countries the roofs of
the Mosques were generally flat and covered with a coating of clay.
112 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
be. Some say it is the great Mihrab, close to which now stands
the Noble Pulpit, and fronting the Great Gate, through which you
enter the Aksa Mosque. Others say that the Mihrab of 'Omar is
the one in the eastern aisle of the Aksa Mosque, being in the
(south) wall of the Mosque, seeing this said aisle, with its
adjacent parts, is called the Jami' of 'Omar (Plan, E), and that
this is the very place which he cleared of filth, he, 'Omar, and
those who were with him of the Companions, and swept clean
before they prayed thereon. Whence it is called the Jami' of
'Omar. Most, however, are of the opinion before mentioned,
namely, that the Mihrab of 'Omar is the great Mihrab near the
Mimbar, or Pulpit." (3., 264.)
The small building on the east of the Aksa, along the south
boundary wall, known at the present day as the Mosque of 'Omar
(Plan, E), and here referred to, is of comparatively modern con-
struction, and subsequent to the days of Salad in. The present
building lying to the east of the north portico and gates of the
Aksa, called the Farisiyyah (not shown on the plan facing p. no),
was built by a certain Faris ad Din Albki, about the year (755)
1354. (M. a. D., 390.)
The question now arises : When did the great change in the
plan of the Aksa Mosque take place ? from the many-columned
Mosque of the days of Nasir (as shown in the plans facing pp. 99
and 106) to the comparatively poor building described by Mujirad
Din, and seen at the present day ? (the plan of which faces p. no).
The Arab chroniclers tell us nothing very definite on this point,
but all we can gather from various sources inclines us fully to agree
with Professor Hayter-Lewis in thinking that the great alteration in
the Mosque must have been made shortly after the Holy City had
been taken by Godfrey de Bouillon. Mr. Hayter-Lewis writes :*
1 The probability is that the Mosque was injured in the capture
of the town by the Crusaders. By them it was assigned as the
residence for the Templars who have left very clear traces of their
occupation of the Aksa ; more especially at the southern part,
where an apse to the south-east chapel, and portions of a richly-
ornamented arcade to the south wall, are very evident. Probably
* The Holy Places of Jerusalem, by T. Hayter-Lewis, F.S.A., p. 87.
JERUSALEM. 113
it was by them repaired and reconstructed much as it appears
now, except that when Saladin reconquered the city he restored it
to its original purposes of a Mosque, uncovered the Mihrab, which
had been blocked up by a thick wall, as is stated in an inscription
by him, decorated the whole, and executed, circa 1188, the work
now seen in the transepts.'
The historical data given by the Muslim writers would certainly
seem to corroborate this view. Tracing the history point by point
backward, we find, in the first place, that the Mosque, as it now
stands, is identical with that described by Mujir ad Din in 1496.
Now Mujir ad Din devotes some pages of the section of his work
on the topography of the Holy City (pp. 432-447 of the Cairo
text) to a careful enumeration of the long list of Mamluk Sultans
who succeeded to the throne of Saladin (ending with the Sultan of
his own days), with a view of mentioning the various monuments
they had left in the Haram Area and Jerusalem ; and nowhere
does he make mention of any extensive alterations having been
effected by the Mamluk Sultans in the Aksa. . Further, the
description given in the chronicles of the restorations effected by
Saladin in the Mosque after the year 1187. shows that the Mosque,
as it came into his hands, after the expulsion of the Crusaders, was
in all essential points what Mujir ad Din described in 1496, and
what we now see. From 1099 to 1187 the Holy City was in the
hands of the Crusaders, and in 1047 we have Nasir-i-Khusrau's
account of the Aksa when he visited it a magnificent building,
double the width of the present Mosque, with two hundred and
eighty pillars supporting the roof, and fifteen aisles. The con-
clusion can only be that it was during the occupation of the
Crusaders that the Mosque was reduced from its original grand
proportions to the narrow limits we at present see. This conclu-
sion is confirmed when we remember that the Latins considered
the Aksa Mosque to hold a very secondary place (while the Dome
of the Rock was in their eyes the true Templum Domini) ; hence
that the Knights Templars had no compunction in remodelling
probably the whole building, when they turned part of the Aksa
into a church for the order, and established their mainguard and
armoury in the outlying quarters of the great Mosque.
8
PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
THE DOME OF THE ROCK.
In remarkable contrast with the little that is known of the early
architectural history of the Aksa Mosque, is the very full account
given by the Annalists of the date and the historical incidents
connected with the foundation of the Dome over the Sacred Rock.
From the earliest times, also, there are extant such detailed descrip-
tions of this beautiful building, that it may be affirmed, almost
certainly, that the edifice as it now stands in the nineteenth
century,* is (in regard to ground-plan and elevation) substantially
identical with that which the Khalif 'Abd al Malik erected in the
year 691 (A.H. 72). The Cupola, it is true, has on many occasions
been shattered by earthquakes, and the walls possibly have often
been damaged and repaired, but the octagonal ground-plan and
the system of concentric colonnades, through all the restorations
have remained unaltered ; and even to the number of the
windows, the Dome of the Rock, as described in A.D. 903 by
Ibn al Fakih, is almost exactly similar to the Kubbat as Sakhrah
of the present day.
In the matter of the Rock which the Dome is intended to
cover, it must be remembered that this was held sacred, in the
eyes of Muslim true believers, both as representing the ancient
Kiblah of Moses for on the Rock they say the Ark of the
Covenant was placed and as the first Kiblah in Islam, for it
was only in the month of Rajab of the second year of the Flight
that the revelation came to Muhammad telling him that the
Ka'abah at Makkah was for all future times to be the sole
Kiblah-point, towards which his followers should turn their faces
in prayer. Further, this Rock was an object of veneration to
the True Believer, since, according to the received tradition
already quoted (p. 89), their Prophet had from this Rock
ascended into Paradise, and returned again to earth at this spot,
after beholding the presence of Allah. That the Rock was a
sacred rock to all Muslims, it is all important to remember, in
view of the events which induced 'Abd al Malik to erect the great
Dome above it. Before quoting the accounts of this event given
* See frontispiece.
JERUSALEM. 115
in the Arab Chronicles, it may be well to borrow a few lines
from a work written by the late Professor E. H. Palmer, which
portray the condition of the Omayyad Khalifate at the period
when the Dome of the Rock was built :
' In A.D. 684, in the reign of 'Abd al Malik, the ninth successor
of Muhammad, and the fifth Khalif of the house of Omayyah,
events happened which once more turned people's attention to the
City of David. For eight years the Muslim Empire had been
distracted by factions and party quarrels. The inhabitants of the
two Holy Cities, Makkah and Al Madinah, had risen against the
authority of the legitimate Khalifs, and had proclaimed 'Abd
Allah ibn Zubair their spiritual and temporal head. The Khalifs
Yazid and Mu'awiyah had in vain attempted to suppress the insur-
rection ; the usurper had contrived to make his authority acknow-
ledged throughout Arabia and the African provinces, and had
established the seat of his government at Makkah itself. 'Abd al
Malik trembled for his own rule ; year after year crowds of
pilgrims would visit the Ka'abah, and Ibn Zubair's religious and
political influence would thus become disseminated throughout the
whole of Islam. In order to avoid these consequences, and
at the same time to weaken his rival's prestige, 'Abd al Malik
conceived the plan of diverting men's minds from the pilgrimage
to Makkah, and inducing them to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem
instead.'*
Ya'kubi, one of the earliest of the Muslim historians, writing
of the events which came to pass in 'Abd al Malik's days, gives a
very clear account of how that Khalif, for the political reason just
mentioned, attempted to make the True Believers circumambulate
the Rock at Jerusalem, in place of the Black Stone in the Ka'abah
at Makkah. Had the attempt succeeded, the Khalif would thereby
have instituted annual rites of pilgrimage in Jerusalem on the
pattern of those which, since the Prophet's days, had been per-
formed in the Makkah Haram ; and the golden stream of pilgrim
offerings and fees would have flowed into 'Abd al Malik's treasury,
instead of into the pockets of the inhabitants of Makkah, who
* Jerusalem the City of Herod and Saladin, by W. Besant and E. H. Palmer,
1871, p. 78.
82
ii6 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
were at this time supporting the claims of his rival, Ibn Zubair,
to the Khalifate. Had 'Abd al Malik's attempt succeeded, it is a
question whether Jerusalem might not then have become the
capital of the Omayyads, in place of Damascus. As events
turned out, the Khalif failed to divert the Muslim pilgrimage to
the Holy City of Palestine, and Makkah did not lose its pre :
eminence as the religious centre of Islam, even when Ibn Zubair
was defeated and slain, and Damascus was made the seat of the
Omayyad Khalifate. To return, however, to the historian Ya'kiibi.
The passage of his writings relating to the building of the Dome
of the Rock is the following :
" Then 'Abd al Malik forbade the people of Syria to make the
pilgrimage (to Makkah) ; and this by reason that 'Abd Allah ibn
az Zubair was wont to seize on them during the time of the
pilgrimage, and force them to pay him allegiance which, 'Abd al
Malik having knowledge of, forbade the people to journey forth to
Makkah. But the people murmured thereat, saying, ' How dost
thou forbid us to make the pilgrimage to Allah's house, seeing
that the same is a commandment of Allah upon us ?' But the
Khalif answered them, * Hath not Ibn Shihab az Zuhri* told you
how the Apostle of Allah did say : Men shall journey to but three
Masjids (mosques, namely], Al Masjid Haram (at Makkah}, my
Masjid (at Madinah] , and the Masjid of the Holy City (which is
Jerusalem] ? So this last is now appointed for you (as a place of
worship) in lieu of the Masjid al Haram (of Makkah). And this
Rock (the Sakhrah of Jerusalem), of which it is reported that
upon it the Apostle of Allah set his foot when he ascended into
heaven, shall be unto you in the place of the Ka'abah.' Then
'Abd al Malik built above the Sakhrah a Dome, and hung it
around with curtains of brocade, and he instituted doorkeepers
for the same, and the people took the custom of circumambulating
the Rock (as Sakhrah of Jerusalem), even as they had paced
round the Ka'abah (at Makkah), and the usage continued thus all
the days of the dynasty of the Omayyads." (Yb. Hist., ii. u.)
* A celebrated traditionist, who was personally acquainted with many of the
Prophet's Companions. He died in 124 (742), being seventy-two or more
years old. His life is given by Ibn Khallikan, Biographical Dictionary t De
Slane's Translation, vol. ii., p. 581.
JERUSALEM. 117
The above account, of itself, is sufficient to disprove the theory
very skilfully argued by the late Mr. Fergusson, of which the
cardinal idea was that this Dome of the Rock (and not the
Church of the Sepulchre) represents and stands in the place of
the (ireat Church erected by Constantine, over our Lord's tomb.
Mr. Fergusson stated that he based his theory on historical data,
as well as on arguments drawn from the architectural style of the
building (which in his eyes was purely Byzantine), and he roundly
asserted that " no Mohammedan writer of any sort, anterior to
the recovery of the city from the Christians by Saladin, ventures
to assert that his countrymen built the Dome of the Rock,"* a
statement which can no longer stand, in view of the authority here
quoted.
Mukaddasi, who wrote in the year 985, gives another version
of the reasons which induced 'Abd al Malik to build the Dome
over the Rock, which it may be well to quote at the present point.
The paragraph occurs after the description of the Great Mosque
at Damascus, which will be given later on (see Chapter VI.).
Mukaddasi then continues :
" Now one day I said, speaking to my father's brother, * O my
uncle, verily it was not well of the Khalif al Walid to expend so
much of the wealth of the Muslims on the Mosque at Damascus.
Had he expended the same on making roads, or for caravanserais,
or in the restoration of the Frontier Fortresses, it would have been
more fitting and more excellent of him.' But my uncle said to
me in answer, ' O my little son, thou hast not understanding !
Verily Al Walid was right, and he was prompted to a worthy work.
For he beheld Syria to be a country that had long been occupied
by the Christians, and he noted herein the beautiful churches still
belonging to them, so enchantingly fair, and so renowned for their
splendour, even as are the Rumanian (the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerusalem), and the churches of Lydda and Edessa.
So he sought to build for the Muslims a mosque that should
prevent their regarding these, and that should be unique and a
wonder to the world. And in like manner is it not evident how
* See his article on Jerusalem in Dr. Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible,''
vol. i., p. 1030.
u8 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
the Khalif 'Abd al Malik, noting the greatness of the Dome of the
(Holy Sepulchre called) Al Kumamah and its magnificence, was
moved lest it should dazzle the minds of the Muslims, and hence
erected above the Rock, the Dome which now is seen there ?' "*
(Muk, 159.)
That the Khalif 'Abd al Malik was the builder of the Dome of
the Rock is further confirmed by the well-known inscription
which may still be read above the cornice of the octagonal colon-
nade supporting the Cupola. Running round this is a magnificent
Cufic script, in yellow on blue tiles, which must have been placed
here by 'Abd al Malik at the time when his building was com-
pleted. It is dated A.H. 72 (691). Unfortunately, some of the
tiles were apparently taken out about a century and a half later
when, in the days of the Khalif al Mamun, son of Harun ar
Rashid, the Dome underwent restoration, and in their place other
tiles, but of a darker blue, have been substituted, bearing the
name of Al Mamun in place of that of 'Abd al Malik. This
fraudulent substitution, or forgery, perpetrated presumably by the
courtly architect of the Abbasides, stands, however, self-confessed
by the forgers having omitted to alter the date of 'Abd al
Malik's reign, that is, the year 72 A.H. Al Mamun, whose name
they have substituted immediately before this date, was only born
in A.H. 170, and was Khalif from A.H. 198 218. Also, as noted
above, the colouring of the newer tiles is of a darker tint, which
does not correspond with the blue of the earlier tiles. Further,
the inserted letters (of Al Mamun's name and titles), being too
numerous for the space at command, have had to be closer set
than are those in the original portions of the inscription. To
make all this as clear as is possible to the English reader, the
following translation of the inscription is printed in capitals to
represent the square Cufic script. In this the three lines give the
words as they stand at the present day. The letters placed closer
together represent the forged part of the inscription in the Arabic,
much crowded as to space, and written on the darker tiles. These
have been substituted by the architects of Al Mamun. The letters
* See also p. 98, where Mukaddasi speaks again of the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre, and of the Aksa having been built to rival this in magnificence.
JERUSALEM. 119
added below the second line indicate the inscription that probably
stood in the place of these substituted tiles, the letters of 'Abd al
Malik's name being spaced out to bring them even with those in
the remainder of the inscription.*
"HATH BUILT THIS DOME THE SERVANT OF ALLAH
'ABDALLAHTHEIMAMALMAMUNCOMMANDER OF THE FAITHFUL
DAL MALIK C
IN THE YEAR TWO AND SEVENTY ALLAH ACCEPT OF HIM !"
Another dated inscription has also been discovered in the Dome
of the Rock, stamped on each of the bronze plates which are
attached to the lintels above the four outer doors facing the car-
dinal points of the octagonal building. The date given is 2i6A.H.,
corresponding to 831 A.D. These are also written in a fine Cufic
script, and relate, in all probability, to the very restoration under
Al Mamun's orders, during which the falsification just described of
'Abd al Malik's great tile-inscription was perpetrated. The inscrip-
tion on the plates may be translated as follows :t
" According to what hath commanded the servant of Allah * Abd
Allah, the Imam Al Mamun, the Commander of the Faithful may
Allah prolong his existence ! and under the governorship of the
brother of the Commander of the Faithful, Abu Ishak, the son of the
Commander of the Faithful Ar Rashid may Allah lengthen his
(Abu Ishak's) life! And it hath been accomplished at the hands of
Salih ibn Ya/iya, Freedman of the Commander of the Faithful, in
the month Rabi" 1 al Akhir of the year two hundred and sixteen"
Al Mamun reigned from 813 (198) to 833 (218), when he was
succeeded by the brother here mentioned, Abu Ishak, who, on
becoming Khalif, took the name of Al Mu'tasim. Abu Ishak lived
on excellent terms with his brother, the Khalif Al Mamun, and,
* A beautiful chromo-lithographic facsimile of the original Cufic text of this
inscription is given by M. de Vogue on plate xxi. of his work Le Temple de
Jerusalem. It is also printed (in the Cufic Character) on p. 88 of the volume
on Jerusalem, published by the Palestine Exploration Fund. A lithographic
facsimile may also be seen on the plate facing p. 484 of \h& Journal A siatique,
vol. ix., Huitieme Serie, 1887.
t The text is given by M. de Vogue, Jerusalem, p. 86.
120 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
during the very year given in the inscription, the Chronicles*
relate that he commanded a body of troops in Al Mamun's expe-
dition against the Greeks, and afterwards came with the Khalif to
visit Damascus. It is not, however, stated that he was at that
time Governor of Syria (as the inscription rather implies), but he
was, probably, already the recognised heir-apparent, and, as such,
doubtless, his name appears on these lintels.
The earliest detailed description of the Dome of the Rock, is
that left us by Ibn al Fakih in the year 903 (290). As will be seen
from the Plan of the Haram Area (at the end of Chapter IV. ), the
octagonal building supporting the Dome stands at about the centre-
point of a square-shaped platform. This platform is of a man's
height above the general level of the court of the Haram Area, and
is ascended by stairways. On the platform, besides the Dome of
the Rock, stand several other very much smaller Domes. The de-
scription of these will be given in more detail at a later page.
(See Chapter IV.)
Ibn al Fakih speaks of all these edifices in the following terms :
" In the middle of the Haram Area is a platform, measuring 300
ells in length, by 140 ells across, and its height is 9 ells. It has
six flights of stairways, leading up to the Dome of the Rock. The
Dome rises in the middle of this platform. The ground-plan of
the same measures 100 ells by 100, its height is 70 ells, and its
circumference is 360 ells. In the Dome every night they light
300 lamps. It has four gates roofed over, and at each gate are
four doors, and over each gate is a portico of marble. The stone
of the Rock measures 34 ells by 27 ells, and under the Rock is a
cavern in which the people pray. This cavern is capable of con-
taining sixty-two persons. (The edifice of) the Dome is covered
with white marble, and its roof with red gold. In its walls, and
high in (the drum), are fifty-six windows (bab\ glazed with glass of
various hues ; each measures 6 ells in the height, by 6 spans
across. The Dome, which was built by 'Abd al Malik ibn
Marwan is supported on twelve piers and thirty pillars. It con-
sists of a dome over a dome (that is, an inner and an outer), on
which are sheets of lead and white marble (below).
* Ibn al Athir, vi. 295.
JERUSALEM. 121
" To the east of the Dome of the Rock stands the Dome of
the Chain. It is supported by twenty marble columns, and its
roof is covered with sheets of lead. In front of it (again to the
east), is the Praying Station of Al Khidr (St. George or Elias).
The platform occupies the middle of the Haram Area. To the
north is the Dome of the Prophet, and the Station of Gabriel ;
near the Rock is the Dome of the Ascension." (I. F., 100, 101.)
With this description of the year 903, the Dome of the Rock as
it now stands, tallies to a remarkable degree. The ell then in use
was that known as the Dhire! Maliki, or royal ell, which may
be estimated as approximately equivalent to 18 inches. The
perimeter of the octagonal walls stated at 360 ells, gives 45 ells,
or 67^ feet for the length of each face of the octagon ; the measure-
ment to day is 66 feet.
The measurement of 100 ells by the like, for the ground-plan,
corresponds fairly well also, since the space between the thresholds
of the opposite doors, north and south, or east and west, measures
almost exactly 150 feet.
The height, given at 70 ells, or 105 feet, shows that the Dome
was in these early times of much the same height as is the present
one, built after the earthquakes, which measures 112 feet from
floor to pinnacle. The four gates and their porticos are exactly
what is found at the present day, as also is the Rock itself and the
Cavern below it. A more remarkable coincidence is afforded by
the number of the windows mentioned by Ibn al Fakih. In the
present edifice there are sixteen stained-glass windows, pierced in
the drum under the Dome, and below this are five openings in
each of the eight side walls forming the octagon. This (5 times 8
added to 16) gives fifty-six for total, the exact number mentioned
by Ibn al Fakih as existing in the year 903.
In the matter of the columns supporting the Dome, some change
in the number and arrangement appears to have taken place at
various times since the year 903, probably during the many
restorations after the shocks of earthquake.
The twelve piers mentioned still exist as described by Ibn al
Fakih, a reference to the present plan (facing p. 114) showing four
piers in the inner circle supporting the Dome, and eight in the outer
122 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
circle marking the angles of the octagon. The number of the
minor pillars, however, is not so exact. At the present day there
are three pillars between each of the four piers of the inner circle,
and two pillars between each of the eight piers of the outer circle.
This gives a total for the present pillars of twenty-eight, and Ibn
al Fakih says there were thirty in his day. The difference,
however, is not very material.
On this subject of the number of the piers and pillars, it may be
well to note the details given by the Spanish Arab Ibn 'Abd Rabbih,
who wrote about this same period (circa A.M. 300, A.D. 913). He
states that " within the Sakhrah (or Dome of the Rock) are thirty
columns, and the columns which are without (khdrij, presumably
meaning 'round ') the Sakhrah (or Rock) are eighteen in number."
There is, however, some ambiguity in the term khdrij, and the
numbers agree neither with those given by Ibn al Fakih, his
contemporary, nor with those seen at the present day, as shown in
the plan (facing p. 114).
The dimensions Ibn al Fakih gives for the Platform, and
his description of the other minor Domes standing on this Plat-
form, will be noticed on a subsequent page. (See Chapter IV.)
Next in order comes the account of the Dome of the Rock left
by Istakhri and Ibn Haukal, three-quarters of a century after
the time of Ibn al Fakih. This description of the year 978 has
been copied verbatim by the geographer Abu-1-Fida in his account
of Palestine written in 1321; and it maybe cited as an instance of
the uncritical way in which Arab writers plagiarise each from his
predecessors. Ibn Haukal and Istakhri write :
" The Holy City is nearly as large at Al Ramlah (the capital of
the province of Filastin). It is a city perched high on the hills,
and you have to go up to it from all sides. There is here a
Mosque, a greater than which does not exist in all Islam.
The Main-building (which is the Aksa Mosque) occupies the
south-eastern angle of the Mosque (Area, or Noble Sanctuary),
and covers about half the breadth of the same. The remainder
of the Haram Area is left free, and is nowhere built over, except
in the part around the Rock. At this place there has been raised
a stone (terrace) like a platform, of great unhewn blocks, in
JERUSALEM. 123
the centre of which, covering the Rock, is a magnificent Dome.
The Rock itself is about breast-high above the ground, its length
and breadth being almost equal, that is to say, some 10 ells*
and odd, by the same across. You may descend below it by
steps, as though going down to a cellar, passing through a
door measuring some 5 ells by 10. The chamber below the
Rock is neither square nor round, and is above a man's stature
in height." (Is., 56; I. H., in ; A. F., 227.)
Mukaddasi, a native of Jerusalem, whose account (985) dates
from a few years later than the above by Ibn Haukal, taken with
that left by the Persian traveller Nasir, who visited the Holy City
in 1047, gives us a detailed and graphic picture of the Dome of
the Rock in the century preceding the arrival of the first Crusaders.
Mukaddasi, immediately after the description of the Aksa Mosque
quoted above (pp. 98, 99), writes as follows :
"The Court (of the Haram Area) is paved in all parts; in
its centre rises a Platform, like that in the Mosque at Al Madinah,
to which, from all four sides, ascend broad flights of steps.
On this Platform stand four Domes. Of these, the Dome of the
Chain, the Dome of the Ascension, and the Dome of the
Prophet are of small size. Their domes are covered with sheet-
lead, and are supported on marble pillars, being without walls.
"In the centre of the Platform is the Dome of the Rock, which
rises above an octagonal building having four gates, one opposite
to each of the flights of steps leading up from the Court. These
four are the Kiblah (or southern) Gate ; the Gate of (the Angel)
Israfil (to the east) ; the Gate As Sur (or of the Trumpet), to the
north ; and the Women's Gate (Bab an Nisa), which last opens
towards the west. All these are adorned with gold, and closing
each of them is a beautiful door of cedar-wood finely worked
in patterns. These last were sent hither by command of the
mother of the Khalif Al Muktadir-billah. f Over each of the
gates is a porch of marble, wrought with cedar-wood, with brass-
work without ; and in this porch, likewise, are doors, but these are
unornamented.
* Too low an estimate.
f He reigned at Baghdad, 908 to 932.
I2 4 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
"Within the building are three concentric colonnades, with
columns of the most beautiful marble, polished, that can be seen,
and above is a low vaulting. Inside these (colonnades) is the
central hall over the Rock ; it is circular, not octagonal, and is
surrounded by columns of polished marble supporting circular
arches. Built above these, and rising high into the air, is the
drum, in which are large windows ; and over the drum is the
Dome. The Dome, from the floor up to the pinnacle, which rises
into the air, is in height 100 ells. From afar off you may perceive
on the summit of the Dome the beautiful pinnacle (set thereon),
the size of which is a fathom and a span. The Dome, externally,
is completely covered with brass plates gilt, while the building
itself, its floor, and its walls, and the drum, both within and with-
out, are ornamented with marble and mosaics, after the manner that
we shall describe* when speaking of the Mosque of Damascus.
The Cupola of the Dome is built in three sections ; the inner is of
ornamental panels. Next come iron beams interlaced, set in free,
so that the wind may not cause the Cupola to shift ; and the third
casing is of wood, on which are fixed the outer plates. Up
through the middle of the Cupola goes a passage-way, by which a
workman may ascend to the pinnacle for aught that may be wanting,
or in order to repair the structure. At the dawn, when the light
of the sun first strikes on the Cupola, and the Drum reflects
his rays, then is this edifice a marvellous sight to behold, and one
such that in all Islam I have never seen the equal ; neither have I
heard tell of aught built in pagan times that could rival in grace
this Dome of the Rock." (Muk., 169, 170.)
Between the times of Mukaddasi and Nasir, the Holy City
suffered severely from shocks of earthquake, as reported in the
Chronicle of Ibn al Athir (see above, p. 101), and in the year 1016
(407), as there stated, the Dome over the Rock fell in. The dates
of the repairs subsequently undertaken are recorded by two extant
inscriptions in the Cupola, the first of which is of a tenor that
recalls the one that was read and copied in the Dome of the
Aksa Mosque by 'Ali of Herat (see above, p. 102).
The Holy City had since the year 969 been in the possession of
* See Chapter VI.
JERUSALEM. 125
the Khalif of Cairo, and it was the Fatimite Adh Dhahir who
ordered the restorations which were completed in 1022 (413) and
1027 (418), and which are referred to in the two following
inscriptions.
The first is written in the ancient Karmatic characters, and is to
be seen on a beam in the framework of the Dome. M. de Vogue
has given a facsimile of this inscription on plate xxxvii. of his
work, Le Temple de Jerusalem. The following is a translation :
" In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful. Verily
he who believeth in Allah restoreth the Mosques of Allah. Hath
commanded the restoration of this Dome, the Imam Abu-l-Hasan
'Ali adh DJiahir-li-Izaz-ad-Din- Allah, the son of Al Hakim-bi-Amr-
Illah, Commander of the Faithful the benediction of Allah be upon
him, and on his most pure and generous forefathers ! This was
executed at the hand of his servant ihe Amir, the supporter of the
Imams, the sustainer of the State, 'Alt ibn Ahmad Inabat Allah, in
the year 413 (A.D. 1022). May Allah perpetuate the glory and tJic
stability of our Master, the Commander of the Faithful, giving him
kingship over the east and the west of the earth, for Him we praise
at the beginning and the ending of all actions /"
The second inscription is to be seen inside the Dome of the
Rock on the tile-work. It is unfortunately much mutilated, but
the last few words are plainly legible. M. de Vogue (Jerusalem,
Plate xxiii.) has reproduced it in chromolithograph. The letters
are yellow on the dark green ground of the enamelled tile. The
last words may be translated :
". . . . in the year four hundred and eighteen."
A.M. 418 corresponds with A.D. 1027, which would lead us to
suppose that these tiles were put up to replace those damaged
by the earthquakes.
Nasir-i-Khusrau's account, describing what he saw during his
visit to Jerusalem in 1047, is the last we possess prior to the
Crusades. It must be noted that the "cubit," or " ell "(as the
Persian measures Arsh and Gez are here rendered), is not the
Dhira Maliki, the royal ell, of 1 8 inches, but the later Arab ell,
equivalent to about 2 feet English measure. At this valuation,
Nasir's measurements will be found to agree wonderfully exactly
126
PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
with those of the present Dome of the Rock. The arrangement
and number of the " piers " and " columns " described by Nasir
does not, however, coincide with those seen at the present day.
Nasir gives inner circle : four piers, with two columns (eight in
all) between each ; outer circle : eight piers, with three columns
(twenty-four in all) between each pier. At the present day there
are, on the contrary, three columns between each of the four
piers of the inner circle, and two only between each of the eight
piers in the outer ring. (See plan facing p. 114.) Hence Nasir's
total of the columns (not counting piers) is thirty-two, while the
present number is twenty-eight. (See also above, p. 121.)
South. Door
North. Door
DOME OF THE CHAIN AND DOME OF THE: ROCK,
SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE PIERS AND COLUMNS, ACCORDING
TO THE. DESCRIPTION Of NASIR - I - KHUSRAU, IN 104-7 A D
After describing the Aksa Mosque, Nasir continues :
"The Kubbat as Sakhrah (the Dome of the Rock) which
Rock was, of old, the Kiblah is so situate as to stand in the
middle of the platform, which itself occupies the middle of the
Haram Area. The edifice is built in the form of a regular octagon,
and each of its eight sides measures 33 cubits (or 66 feet). There
are four gates facing the four cardinal points namely, east, west,
JERUSALEM. 127
north, and south ; and between each of these is one of the oblique
sides of the octagon. The walls are everywhere constructed of
squared stones, and are 20 cubits (or 40 feet in height). The
Rock itself measures 100 ells round. It has no regular form,
being neither square nor circular ; but is shapeless, like a boulder
from the mountains. Beyond the four sides of the Rock rise four
piers of masonry that equal in height the walls of the (octagonal)
building ; and between every two piers, on the four sides, stand a
pair of marble pillars, which are like to the height of the piers.
Resting on these twelve piers and pillars is the structure of the
Dome, under which lies the Rock ; and the circumference of the
Dome is 120 cubits (or 240 feet).*
" Between the walls of the (octagonal) building, and the circle
of piers and pillars and by the term ' pier ' (sutiin) I understand
a support that is built up, and is square ; while the term ' pillar '
(ustuwanaJi) denotes a support that is cut from a single block of
stone, and is round between this inner circle of supports, then,
and the outer walls of the edifice, are built eight f other piers of
squared stones, and between every two of them are placed, equi-
distant, three columns in coloured marble. Thus, while in the
inner circle between every two piers there are two columns, there
are here (in the outer circle) between every two piers, three
columns. On the capital of each pier are set four volutes (shakh\
from each of which springs an arch ; and on the capital of each
column are set two volutes, sc that every column is the spring of
two arches, while at every pier is the spring of four.
" The Great Dome, which rises above the twelve piers standing
round the Rock, can be seen from the distance of a league away,
* From the very exact plans in M. de Vogues Jerusalem, the full diameter
of the drum of the Dome appears to be 23 metres, or 75^ feet. This gives a
circumference of 237 feet, which agrees very well with the 120 cubits, 240 feet
of the text.
f The British Museum MS. and M. Schefer's text both give "six "as the
number of piers in the outer circle, but this neither corresponds with what
follows some lines below (where the total number of piers in the outer and
inner circles is stated to be twelve, i.e., four //weight), nor with the actual
condition of the Dome of the Rock, which apparently never had more than
four piers in the inner, and eight in the outer circle, a number necessitated by
the octagonal shape of the building.
128 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
rising like the summit of a mountain. From the base of the
Dome to its pinnacle measures 30 cubits, and this rises above the
(octagonal) walls that are 20 ells high, for the Dome is supported
on the pillars that are like in height to the outer walls ; and the
whole building rises on a platform that itself is 12 ells high, so
that from the level of the Court of the Noble Sanctuary to the
summit of the Dome measures a total of 62 ells (or 124 feet).*
The roofing and the ceiling of this edifice are both in woodwork ;
this is set above the piers, and the pillars, and the walls, after a
fashion not to be seen elsewhere. The Rock itself rises out of
the floor to the height of a man, and a balustrade of marble goes
round about it, in order that none may lay his hand thereon.
The Rock inclines on the side that is towards the Kiblah (or
south), and there is an appearance as though a person had walked
heavily on the stone when it was soft like clay, whereby the
imprint of his toes had remained thereon. There are on the
Rock seven such footmarks, and I heard it stated that Abraham
peace be upon him ! was once here with Isaac upon him be
peace ! when he was a boy, and that he walked over this place,
and that the footmarks were his.
" In the house of the Dome of the Rock men are always con-
gregated pilgrims and worshippers. The place is laid with fine
carpets of silk and other stuffs. In the middle of the Dome, and
over the Rock, there hangs from a silver chain a silver lamp ; and
there are in other parts of the building great numbers of silver
lamps, on each of which is inscribed its weight. These lamps are
all the gift of the (Fatimite Khalif, who is) Sultan of Egypt ; and,
according to the calculations I made, there must be here in silver
utensils of various kinds of the weight of a thousand Manns (or
about a ton and a half). I saw there a huge wax taper that was
7 cubits high, and 3 spans in diameter. It was (white) like the
* I note this as the principal passage for proving that Nasir-i-Khusrau uses
the terms gez, " ell," and ars/i, " cubit," synonymously. On a previous page he
has said that the platform is twelve arsh high ; here he says it measures twelve
gez, and this added to twenty gez (walls) and to thirty arsh (dome) makes sixty-
two gez. The height of the Dome of the Rock at the present day, measuring
from floor to summit of dome, is, roughly, 112 feet. Nasir estimates it (deduct-
ing the height of the platform) at 50 ells or cubits, equivalent to 100 feet.
JERUSALEM. 129
camphor of Zibfij,* and the (wax) was mixed with ambergris.
They told me that the Sultan of Egypt sent hither every year a great
number of tapers, and, among the rest, the large one just described,
on which the name of the Sultan was written in golden letters.
" As I have said before, all the roof and the exterior parts
of the Dome of the Rock are covered with lead. At each of the
four sides of the Dome of the Rock is set a great gate, with
double folding-doors of Saj-wood (or teak). These doors are
always kept closed. They say that on the night of his ascent into
Heaven, the Prophet peace and benediction be upon him !
prayed first in the Dome of the Rock, laying his hand upon the
Rock. And as he came forth, the Rock, to do him honour, rose
up, but the Prophet peace and benediction be upon him ! laid
his hand thereon to keep it in its place, and firmly fixed it there.
But, by reason of this uprising, even to the present day, it is here
partly detached (from the ground below). The Prophet the
peace of Allah be upon him, and His benediction ! went on
thence and came to the Dome, which is now called after him, and
there he mounted (the steed) Burak ; and for this reason is that
Dome venerated. Underneath the Rock is a large cavern, where
they continually burn tapers; and they say that when the Rock
moved in order to rise up (in honour of the Prophet), this space \
below was left void, and that when the Rock became fixed, itsoj
remained, even as may now be seen." (N. Kh., 44-50.)
Of the Rock itself, Nasir gives the following account :
" This stone, of the Sakhrah, is that which God be He exalted
and glorified ! commanded Moses to institute as the Kiblah
(or direction to be faced at prayer). After this command had
come down, and Moses had instituted the Sakhrah as the Kiblah ;
he himself lived but a brief time, for of a sudden was his life
cut short Then came the days of Solomon upon him be
peace ! who, seeing that the Rock of the Sakhrah was the
Kiblah-point, built a Mosque round about the Rock, whereby
the Rock stood in the midst of the Mosque, which became
* Xiluj, or Zabij, according to the author of the Marasid, is the name of the
country in the further parts of India, on the frontiers of China, i.e., Cochin
China (?).
o
1 30 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
the oratory of the people. So it remained down to the days
of our Prophet Muhammad, the Chosen One upon him be
blessings and peace ! who likewise at first recognised this Rock to
be the Kiblah, turning towards it at his prayers ; but God be He
exalted and glorified ! afterwards (in the month Rajab of the
second year of the Hijrah) commanded him to institute as the
Kiblah the House of the Ka'abah (at Makkah)." (N. Kh., 27.)
The Author of the Mutkir, writing in 1351, notes the occur-
rence of what he deemed a remarkable event, which happened a
few years after Nasir's visit. He writes :*
" In the year 452 (A.D. 1060) the Great Lantern (Tannur) that
hung in the Dome of the Rock fell down, and there were in
this Lantern five hundred lamps. Those of the Muslims who
were at Jerusalem augured therefrom, saying, ' Of a surety there
will happen some portentous event in Islam.' "
In 1099 the Crusaders took Jerusalem, and the Dome of
the Rock, considered by them to be the Templum Domini,
passed to the Knights Templar. Holding this building to be the
veritable Temple of the Lord, its figure was emblazoned by the
Knights on their armorial bearings, and in both plan and elevation
the edifice came to be reproduced by the Templars in the various
Temple Churches which the Order caused to be built in London,
Laon, Metz, and other cities throughout Europe.. In Raphael's
famous picture of the Sposalizio, preserved in the Brera Gallery at
Milan, the Spousals of the Virgin are represented as taking place
before the Gate of the Temple, which Temple is a fairly exact
representation of the polygon of the Dome of the Rock.
The Sicilian geographer Idrisi, in 1154, gives a short description
of the Dome ; but he himself had never visited Palestine, and
he most probably made up his account from descriptions dating
from the beginning of the eleventh century.
He writes : "In the centre of the (Court of the) Mosque rises
the mighty Dome, known as the Kubbat as Sakhrah (the Dome of
* The Arabic text is given in my paper in the Joiirnal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, New Series, vol. xix., p. 304. This paragraph is copied verbatim by
Suyuti (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. '/., p. 287), and also by
Mujir ad Din (Cairo Text, p. 270). The Chronicles, it may be noted, mention
no earthquake as occurring in this year.
JERUSALEM. 131
the Rock). This Dome is overlaid with gold mosaic, and is
of most beautiful workmanship, erected by the Muslim Khalifs.
In its midst is the Rock (the Sakhrah), which is said to have
fallen down (from heaven). It is a mass of stone of the height of
the Platform, and occupies the centre under the Dome. The
extremity of one of its sides rises above the floor to half a man's
height or more, while the other side lies even with the level (of
the Platform). The length of the Rock is nearly equal to its
breadth, and is some 10 ells and odd by the like. You may
descend into the lower part thereof, and go down into a dark
chamber, like a cellar, the length of which is 10 ells, by 5 in
width, and the ceiling reaches above a man's height. No one can
enter this chamber except with a lamp to light him. The Dome
(of the Rock) has four Gates. The Western Gate has opposite
to it an Altar, whereon the Children of Israel were wont to offer
up their sacrifices. Near the Eastern Gate of the Dome is
the Church, which is called the Holy of Holies it is of an
admirable size. Opposite to the Northern Gate (of the Dome of
the Rock) is a beautiful Garden, planted with all sorts of trees, and
round this Garden is set a colonnade of marble of most wondrous
workmanship. In the further part of this Garden is a place
of assembly, where the priests and deacons are wont to take their
repasts." (Id., 7.)
This Garden of the Priests, mentioned also by 'Alt of Herat
(see p. 133), is, doubtless, the House of the Augustinian Canons
established here by Godfrey de Bouillon. Perhaps this may have
occupied the site of the " Cloister of the Sufis " mentioned by
Nasir-i-Khusrau in 1047 (see Chapter V., Gates of the Haram
Area). The Church of the Holy of Holies is the building the
Muslims call the Dome of the Chain, of which a description will
be given in the following chapter. The Altar of the Children of
Israel is apparently of Christian invention, and corresponds to no
Muslim edifice ; it is mentioned in the Citez de Jherusalem* (about
1225), and by other Christian writers, one of whom states that the
Saracens ultimately turned it into a sundial.
'AH of Herat, who visited the Holy City in 1173, fifteen years
* Palestine Pilgrims' Text, p. 37.
92
132 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
before it was retaken by Saladin, has left us a full description of
what he saw in the Dome of the Rock. He notes the iron railing
put round the Rock by the Crusaders in place of the marble
balustrade mentioned by Nasir-i-Khusrau. Portions of this iron
"grille" still exist, and an illustration depicting it will be found in
M. de Vogue's Jerusalem. The chamber under the Rock 'Ali
calls " The Cave of the Souls." The present tradition asserts
that the Bir al Arwah, " The Well of the Souls," is not this
chamber, but a well hollowed in the rock below its pavement.
'Ali's description of the Dome represents exactly what is seen at
the present day, the detail of the arrangement and number of the
piers and columns, in the inner and outer circle, supporting the
Dome, as given in his text, being identical with what is shown in the
present plan. The earlier accounts, it will be remembered, varied
on these points of detail. When the alteration occurred is
unknown. The ell with which 'Ali of Herat takes his measure-
ments is presumably the royal ell of 18 inches, or somewhat less.
'Ali of Herat writes : " The Kubbat as Sakhrah (meaning the
Rock under the Dome) has upon it the (imprint of) the footmark
of the Prophet. Now I went and saw the Rock in the days of the
Frank dominion, and what was to be seen of it then lay in the
north part of the Dome only. Round it was a railing of iron.
At the present time, since Saladin's reconquest of the Holy City,
the Rock appears to the south also, under the Dome. There
is all around, below it, a border, which is covered with enamelled-
work. The Rock is here a span in breadth, and its height is
of 2 ells. Its circumference is over 4 ells. Underneath the Rook
is the Cave of the Souls (Mugharat al Arwah}. They say that
Allah will bring together the souls of all True Believers to this
spot. You descend to this Cave by some fourteen steps, and
they state that the grave of Zakariyyah peace be upon him ! is
here in this Cave. The Cave of the Souls is of the height of
a man. Its width extends n paces from east to west, and 13
paces from north to south. In its roof is an aperture towards the
east, the size of which is an ell and a half across. The circum-
ference of the Cavern is 5 ells. The building of the Dome of the
Rock has four doors, and I visited the place in the year 569 (1173),
JERUSALEM. 133
during the time of the Frank dominion, as before stated. Opposite
the door leading to the Cave of the Souls, and near to the iron
railing, was, in these days, a picture of Solomon, son of David.
Also near to the iron railing, and to the west of the Leaden Gate,
but above it, was the picture of the Messiah all studded over with
jewels.
" The Gate (of the Dome of the Rock) to the east opens
towards the Dome of the Chain. Above it is an arch, on which
is inscribed the name of the Khalif Al Kaim-bi-Amr-Illah, and
the chapter (cxii., of the Kuran), called Ikhlas that is, 'Sincerity.'
To the east of the Dome of the Rock is, as aforesaid, the Dome
of the Chain ; it is here Solomon, the son of David, administered
justice. To the north of the Dome of the Rock was the House
of the Priests (Dar al Kusas), which building is supported on
columns. * The (octagonal) Colonnade round the Dome of the
Rock is supported on sixteen columns of marble, and on eight
piers ; and the Dome within this is supported on four piers and
twelve columns. In the circumference (of the Drum) are sixteen
grated windows. The circumference of the Dome is 160 ells
(240 feet). The perimeter of the great edifice which comprehends
all these (pillars, and the Dome, and which is the octagonal
building), measures 400 ells minus 16 ells (384 ells, or 576 feet).
A line going round the whole building (of the Dome of the Rock),
and including the Dome of the Chain and what pertains thereto
of other buildings, would measure 482 ells (or 723 feet). The
height of -the iron grating which surrounds the Rock is twice that
of a man. There are four iron gates to the Dome of the Rock
one (north) towards the Bab ar Rahmah (Gate of Mercy,
the ancient Golden Gate) ; one (west) towards the Bab Jibrail ;
one towards the Kiblah (south) ; and one (east) towards the
Dome of the Chain. The Dome of the Chain measures 60 paces
round." (A. H., Oxf. MSS., ff. 35-38.)
In 1187 Jerusalem was retaken by Saladin, who, as has been
described above (p. 109), effected a complete restoration of the
Haram Area to its pristine condition. Of the state into which
the Rock had come through the zeal of the Franks for the
* See p. 131.
1.34 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
acquisition of relics, the Chronicle of Ibn al Athir gives the
following account under the year 583 A.H. Possibly the " border "
described by 'Ali of Herat as running all round the Rock (see
above, p. 132) is the covering of pavement which Saladin ordered
to be removed.
Ibn al Athir writes : " Now the Franks had covered the Rock
with a marble pavement, and this Saladin ordered to be removed.
And the reason whereby they had thus covered it with a pave-
ment was this : In the earlier times their priests had been used to
(break off and) sell pieces of the Rock to the Frank (pilgrims)
who came from beyond the sea on pilgrimage ; for these would
buy the same for its weight in gold, believing that there lay therein
a blessing. But seeing this, certain of the (Latin) kings, fearing
lest the Rock should all disappear, ordered that it should be paved
over to keep it safe." (Ibn al Athir, ix. 365.)
After Saladin had completed his restoration, he set up inside
the cupola of the Dome, above the Rock, a beautiful inscription
in tile-work on a series of bands and medallions, which may still
be seen in situ. The Arabic text of this long inscription, of which
the following is a translation, will be found in M. de Vogue's
work,* so often referred to. The text does not run continuously ;
but the following numbers (referring to the paragraphs of the
translation) show the order in which the bands and medallions
running, of course, from right to left, following the Arabic writing
stand each to the other inside the Drum below the cupola.
Besides Saladin's inscription, there are also two others, set up at a
much later date, in the spaces at first left vacant.
13. 12. 7. ii. 6. 10. 5. 9. 16. 8. 4. 3. 15. 2. 14. i.
1. " In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful, hath
commanded the renewal of the gilding of this
2. Noble Dome, our Master the Sultan, the victorious King,
3. the sage, the just Salah ad Dm Yiisuf,
4. In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful
5. . . . in the latter third of the month Rajab of the year 585,
6. by the hand of God's poor servitor Salah ad Dm
7. Yusuf ibn Ay y lib ib?i Shddi, may Allah encompass him in His
mercy r
* Le Temple de Jerusalem, pp. 91, 92.
JERUSALEM. 135
It will be convenient to add here the translations of the two
other inscriptions, which are found on the bands and medallions,
interspersed with Saladin's great inscription. The first of these
commemorates the restoration by order of the Mamluk Sultan
of Egypt, Muhammad ibn Kala'un, in A.H. 718 and 719 (1318 and
1319). The second was set up in our own days by the Sultan of
Turkey, Mahmud II. The tiles containing the date of this last
inscription have been injured, and only the centuries (12** A.H.)
can be read. Sultan Mahmud II. reigned from A.H. 1223 1255
(18081839).
8. "Hath commanded the renewal of the gilding of this Dome,
together with the restoration of the outer Dome of lead
9. Our Master . . . Aasir ad Dunya wa ad Din,
10, the Sultan of the world, who stablisheth the pillars of the
noble Law,
1 1. the Suftan of Islam, Muhammad the son of the Sultan and
Martyr
\ 2. Al Malik Al Mansiir Kalciun, may Allah encompass him
in His mercy ! And this (restoration took place) during
the months of the year 718
13. And it was done under the superintendence of the poor
servitor of Allah be He exalted ! the assiduous, noble
14. and illustrious fawali, Inspector of the Two Noble
Sanctuaries,
15. May Allah give him pardon ! And this in the year 719 "
16. " Hath commanded the gilding of this Dome, and the restora-
tion of the external Dome, our Master the Sultan Mahmud
Khan. In the year 12**"
The traveller Ibn Batutah, who visited Jerusalem in the year
1355, gives but few new details of the Dome of the Rock. He
expatiates on the marvellous beauty of the building, and notes the
four great gates and the interior of the Dome, ornamented with
gilding and colours. After describing the Rock, and mentioning
the cavern below it, he continues, " Round the rock there are two
gratings set here to guard it. Of these the one nearest the Rock
136 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
is of iron, the other of wood. In the Dome there is hung up a
great Buckler of iron, and the people say this was the Buckler of
Hamzah ibn 'Abd al Mutallib (the uncle of the Prophet)." (I. B.,
i. 122, 123.)
Mujir ad Din states that, in the year 1448 (851), the roof of the
Dome of the Rock was destroyed by fire, and was restored by
Sultan al Malik adh Dhahir, " so as to be more beautiful even
than it had been aforetimes." (M. a. D., 443.) The cause of
the fire is said by some authorities to have been a thunderbolt,
which fell in the southern part of the edifice. Others state that
the building was set on fire by a boy, who had gone under the
roof with a candle to catch some pigeons.
Suyuti, writing in 1470, gives the following account of the
Rock, and the wonders shown in its vicinity : " The Footprint
seen here is that of the Prophet when he mounted the steed
Al Burak to ascend into heaven. In Crusading times it was called
Christ's Footprint. The Tongue is said to have been given to
the Rock when it addressed the Khalif 'Omar in welcome ; and
the Marks of the angel Gabriel's Fingers are those left when the
Rock, wishing to accompany the Prophet to heaven, had to be
pushed down and kept in its place.
" The place of the Noble Footprint may be seen at this day on
a stone that is separate from the Rock, and opposite to it, on the
further side, which is to the south-west. This stone is supported
on a column. The Rock, at this present day, forms the walls
enclosing the cave (that is, beneath it) on all sides, except only the
part which lies to the south, where is the opening into the Cave.
The Rock here does not come up to the south side of the Cave,
for between the two is an open space. From the entrance down
into the Cave lead stone steps for descending thereto. On these
stairs is a small shelf, near where the pilgrims stop to visit the
Tongue of the Rock. At this spot is a marble column, the lower
part of which rests on the south portion of the shelf aforesaid,
while its upper part abuts against the Rock, as though to prevent
its giving way towards the south or maybe it is for some other
purpose and the portion of the Rock that lies below supports it.
The Place of the Angel's Fingers is on the western side of the
JERUSALEM. 137
Rock, and is distinct from the Place of the Noble Footstep already
mentioned. It lies close to, and over against, the western gate of
the Sakhrah (or Dome of the Rock)." (S., 258; copied by
M. a. D, 371.)
All these various marvels are shown in the Dome of the Rock
at the present day, and occupy the same positions as they did in
1470 when Suvuti wrote.
In conclusion, the following measurements are of some interest.
They are given by Mujir ad Din, and appear to have been care-
fully taken by him at the time when he wrote his description of
Jerusalem in 1496. The "workman's ell," as before stated,
measures somewhat over 2j feet.
" The building of the Dome of the Rock is octagonal. The
outer perimeter is 240 ells, while the inner is 224 ells, measuring
with the workman's ell.
"The Dome is 51 ells high, measured from the pavement to
the summit. The Platform, on which the Dome of the Rock
stands, is 7 ells above the level of the Court ; thus the summit of
the Dome is 58 ells above the Area of the Noble Sanctuary. The
Dome is supported by twelve pillars and by four piers (in the
inner ring)/' (M. a. D., 370, 371.)
CHAPTER IV .
JERUSALEM.
Traditional Accounts : 'Omar's finding of the Rock The Service instituted by
the Khalif 'Abd al Malik.
The Dome of the Chain: Minor domes The platform and stairways
The Court and the Haram Area The Cradle of Jesus and Stables of
Solomon Minor buildings Minarets.
TRADITIONAL ACCOUNTS.
IN the preceding chapter, the history of the Dome of the Rock
and the Aksa Mosque has been recounted from the earliest avail-
able Arab sources, namely, the Chronicles and Geographies (dating
from the third and fourth centuries of the Hijrah), and the
accounts of the first Muslim pilgrims, who described their visits to
Jerusalem. With the foregoing it will be found interesting to
compare the traditional accounts (apocryphal in detail, and pro-
bably first reduced to writing at a period subsequent to the
Crusades), which profess to give detailed notices of the Khalif
'Omar's re-discovery of the Rock, and of the services instituted by
the Khalif 'Abd al Malik after he had erected the Dome over it.
These accounts, as far as I have been able to discover, are first
given in the work called the Muthir al Ghiram (see p. n), which
was composed in 1351 (752), close on seven hundred years after the
days of 'Abd al Malik, and considerably over the seven centuries
after the date of 'Omar. The author of the Muthir wrote in the
period succeeding the Crusades, when the Franks had recently
been ejected from the Holy Land ; and at this date, what may be
called Historical Romances (as, for instance, the " History " of the
Pseudo-Wakidi, and others), were much in vogue throughout the
countries that Saladin and his successors had so recently liberated
JERUSALEM. 139
from the Frank dominion. The reconquest of Palestine by
Saladin, recalled the incidents of the first Muslim conquest under
'Omar ; and possibly there were still, in the fourteenth century,
some historical traditions which may have formed the groundwork
on which the following narratives were composed.
There is, as will be observed, in the Muthir, a learned affecta-
tion of citing authorities, giving the account as on the authority of
so-and-so, who had it from his father, and his grandfather, who
heard so-and-so relate, etc., etc. This, however, is merely the
usual Arab way of citing the tradition, and in the present case
practically means nothing, since no authority can be found for
these stories earlier than the author of the Muthir himself. These
accounts, as given in the Muthir, have been freely plagiarised by
succeeding writers. Shams ad Din Suyuti (1470) quoted from the
Muthir verbatim, and Mujirad Din, in 1496, copied out the whole
once again, adding here and there some few amplifications.* In
the following pages the order of the paragraphs in the Muthir is
not kept to, the narrative in my translation being arranged to suit
the sequence of events.
'Omar's Conquest. (Muthir, chapter v.f) " Al Walid % states /
on the authority of Sa'id ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz, that the letter of
the Prophet had come to the Kaisar (Caesar) while he was sojourn-
ing at the Holy City. Now at that time there was over the
Rock of the Holy City a "great dungheajp" Which completely
masked the MihralToTDavid, and which same the Christians had
put here in order to offend the Jews, and further, even, the
Christian women were wont to throw here their cloths and clouts,
so "Ehaf Ft was all heaped up therewith. Now, when Caesar had
* The Arabic text, taken from the Paris MSS. of the Mttthtr, of which the
following is a translation, is printed in my paper on Suyuti in the Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xix., part ii., where the whole subject of the MutMr's
authorities will be found discussed at length.
t Quoted by S., 278.
Al Walid ibn Muslim, on whose authority most of these accounts rest, was
a celebrated traditionist, a native of Damascus, and died aged seventy-three
(according to Nawawi, Wiistenfeld's Text, p. 618) in A.H. 194 or 195 (810).
In the seventh year of the Hijrah, the Prophet despatched envoys to the
Chosroes (Khusrii Parvviz) of Persia, and to the Caesar of Byzantium, calling
on them forthwith to acknowledge his mission as Allah's Apostle.
140 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
perused the letter of the Prophet, he cried and said : ' O, ye men
of Greece, verily ye are the people who shall be slain on this dung-
heap, because that ye have desecrated the sanctity of this Mosque.
And it shall be with you even as it was with the Children of Israel,
who were slain for reason of the blood of Yahya ibn Zakariyya
(John the Baptist).' Then the Caesar commanded them to clear
the place, and so they began to do ; but when the Muslims in-
vaded Syria, only a third part thereof had been cleared. NQJK.
when 'Omar hail conic to the Holy City and conquered it, and
saw how there was a dungheap over the Rock, he regarded it as
horrible, and ordered that it should be entirely cleared. And to
accomplish this they forced the Nabathaeans of Palestine to labour
without pay. On the authority of Jabir ibn Nafir, it is related
that when 'Omar first exposed the Rock to view by removing the
dungheap, he commanded them not to pray there until three
showers of heavy rain should have fallen."
" It is related as coming from Shadad ibn Aus, who accompanied
'Omar when he entered the noble Sanctuary of the Holy City on
the day when Allah caused it to be reduced by capitulation, that
'Omar entered by the Gate of Muhammad, crawling on his hands
and knees, he and all those who were with him, until he came up
to the Court (of the Sanctuary). There he looked around to right
and to left, and, glorifying Allah, said : ' By Allah, verily this by
Him in whose hand is my soul ! must be the Mosque of David,
of which the Apostle spake to us, saying, / was conducted thither
in the night journey.'' Then 'Omar advanced to the fore (or
southern) part of the Haram Area, and to the western side
thereof, and he said : ' Let us make this the place for the
Mosque.'"*
* With this and the following accounts of 'Omar's first visit to the Temple
Area, accompanied by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, it will be interesting to
compare the narrative of the Byzantine historian Theophanes, who wrote his
Chronographia in the eighth century A.D. (see note to p. 92), more than five
hundred years, therefore, before the author of the Muthir, who is our sole
authority for the Muslim tradition. The Greek original, of which the following
is a translation, will be found in vol. i., p. 519 of the Bonn edition (1839) of
the Chronographia. "Anno Mundi 6127; Anno Domini 627. In this year
Omar undertook his expedition into Palestine, where, the Holy City having
been continuously besieged for two years (by the Arab armies), he at length
JERUSALEM. 141
" On the authority of Al Walid ibn Muslim, it is reported as
coming from a Shaikh of the sons of Shadad ibn Aus, who had
heard it from his father, who held it of his grandfather, that
'Omar, as soon as he was at leisure from the writing of the Treaty
of Capitulation made between him and the people of the Holy
City, said to the Patriarch of Jerusalem : * Conduct us to the
Mosque of David.' And the Patriarch agreed thereto. Then i
'Omar went forth girt with his sword, and with him four thousand
of the Companions who had come to Jerusalem with him, all
begirt likewise with their swords, and a crowd of us Arabs, who
had come up to the Holy City, followed them, none of us bearing
any weapons except our swords. And the Patriarch walked before
'Omar among the Companions, and we all came behind th$
Khalif. Thus we entered the Holy City. And the Patriarch
took us to the Church which goes by the name of the Kumamah,*
and said he : ' This is David's Mosque.' And 'Omar looked
around and pondered, then he answered the Patriarch : * Thou
liest, for the Apostle described to me the Mosque of David, and
by his description this is not it.' Then the Patriarch went on
with us to the Church of Sihyun (Sion), and again he said : * This
is the Mosque of David.' But the Khalif replied to him : ' Thou
liest.' So the Patriarch went on with him till he came to the
noble Sanctuary of the Holy City, and reached the gate thereof,
called (afterwards) the Gate Muhammad. Now the dung which
was then all about the noble Sanctuary, had settled on the steps
of this gate, so that it even came out into the street in which the
gate opened, and it had accumulated so greatly on the steps as
became possessed of it by capitulation. Sophronius, the chief (or Patriarch)
of Jerusalem, obtained from Omar a treaty in favour of all the inhabitants of
Palestine, after which Omar entered the Holy City clothed in camel-hair
garments all soiled and torn, and making show of piety as a cloak for his
diabolical hypocrisy, demanded to be taken to what in former times had been
the Temple built by Solomon. This he straightway converted into an oratory
for blasphemy and impiety. When Sophronius saw this he exclaimed : ' Verily,
this is the abomination of desolation spoken of by Daniel the Prophet, and it
now stands in the Holy Place ;' and (the Patriarch) shed many tears."
* Al Kumamah literally, " the dunghill." This is a designed corruption on
the part of the Muslims of " Al Kayamah," Anastasis, the name given to the
Church of the Resurrection (the Holy Sepulchre) by the Christian Arabs.
142 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
almost to reach up to the ceiling of the gateway. The Patriarch
said to 'Omar : * It is impossible to proceed and enter except
crawling on hands and knees.' Said 'Omar : ' Even on hands and
knees be it.' So the Patriarch went down on hands and knees,
preceding 'Omar, and we all crawled after him, until he had
brought us out into the Court of the Noble Sanctuary of the Holy
City. Then we arose off our knees, and stood upright. And
'Omar looked around, pondering for a long time. Then said he :
* By Him in whose hands is my soul ! this is the place described
to us by the Apostle of Allah.' " (S., 276 ; M. a. D., 226.)
"And it is reported on other authority to the last, namely, from
Hisham ibn 'Ammar, who had it from Al Haitham ibn 'Omar ibn
al 'Abbasi, who related that he had heard his grandfather, 'Abd
Allah ibn Abu 'Abd Allah, tell how, when 'Omar was Khalif, he
went to visit the people of Syria. 'Omar halted first at the village
of Al Jabiyah,* while he despatched a man of the Jadilah Tribe
to the Holy City, and, shortly after, 'Omar became possessed
of Jerusalem by capitulation. Then the Khalif himself went
thither, and Ka'ab t was with him. Said 'Omar to Ka'ab : ' O,
Abu Ishak, knowest thou the position of the Rock ?' and Ka'ab
answered : ' Measure from the wall which is on the Wadi Jahan-
num so and so many ells ; there dig, and ye shall discover it :'
adding : ' At this present day it is a dungheap.' So they dug
there, and the Rock was laid bare. Then said 'Omar to Ka'ab :
'Where sayest thou we should place the Mosque, or, rather, the
Kiblah ?' Ka'ab replied : ' Lay out a place for it behind the
Rock, whereby you will make one the two Kiblahs, that, namely,
of Moses, and that of Muhammad.' But 'Omar answered
* In Jaulan.
f The author of the Muthir writes in another section : " Ka'ab al Abhar,
or Al Hibr, surnamed Abu Ishak ibn Mani the Himyarite, was originally a
Jew, and became a Muslim during the Khalifate of Abu Bakr or, some say,
during that of 'Omar. He is a celebrated authority for Traditions, and is
noted as having been a very learned man. He died at Himsin A.H. 32 (652)."
In point of fact, Ka'ab, like his co-religionist, the equally celebrated Jew
Wahb ibn Munabbih, who also embraced Islam (the two being the great
authorities among the early Muslims in all points of ancient history), was in
time discovered to have been a great liar, and to have considerably gulled the
simple-minded Arabs of the first century of the Flight.
JERUSALEM. 143
' Thou hast leanings still towards the Jews, O Abu Ishak. The
Mosque shall be in front of the Rock (not behind it).' Thus was
the Mosque erected in the fore-part of the Haram Area."
" Al Walid further relates, as coming from Kulthum ibn Ziyad,
that 'Omar asked of Ka'ab : ' Where thinkest thou that we should
put the place of prayer for Muslims in this Holy Sanctuary ?'
Said Ka'ab in answer : * In the hinder (or northern) portion
thereof, in the part adjoining the Gate of the Tribes.' But 'Omar
said : ' Not so ; seeing that, on the contrary, to us belongs the
fore-part of the Sanctuary.' And 'Omar then proceeded to the
fore-part thereof. Al Walid again relates on the authority of Ibn
Shaddad, who had it of his father * 'Omar proceeded to the fore-
part of the Sanctuary Area, to the side adjoining the west (namely
to the south-west part), and there began to throw the dung by
handfuls into his cloak, and we all who were with him did like-
wise. Then he went with it and we following him to do the
same and threw the dung into the Wadi, which is called the
\\Tuli Jahannum. Then we returned to do the like over again,
and yet again he, 'Omar, and also we who were with him until
we had cleared the whole of the place where the Mosque now
stands. And there we all made our prayers, 'Omar himself praying
among us." '
Some other versions are also given of the same traditions, iden-
tical in every point except for the pseudo-authority quoted, and
the wording of the narrative. (See S., 32 ; copied by M. a. D., 225.)
The following is given by Suyuti only (not by the author of the
Muthlr\ and is curious for the mention of the St. Mary Church
(Kan'isah Mary am) possibly the Church of the Virgin described by
Procopius.
" Now, when 'Omar made the capitulation with the people of
the Holy City, and entered among them, he was wearing at that
time two long tunics of the kind called Sumbulani. Then he
prayed in the Church of Mary, and, when he had done so, he
spat on one of his tunics. And it was said to him : ' Dost thou
spit here because that this is a place in which the sin of polytheism
has been committed ?' And 'Omar answered : ' Yea, verily the
sin of polytheism hath been committed herein ; but now r , in truth,
144 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
the name of Allah hath been pronounced here.' It is further
reported that 'Omar did carefully avoid praying near the Wadi
Jahannum." (S., 34.)
'Abd al Malik and the Dome of the Rock, (MutMr, chapter vi.*)
"The Khalif 'Abd al Malik it was who built the Dome of the
Rock, and the (Aksa) Mosque of the Holy City ; and, according
to report, he devoted to the expenses of the same the revenues of
Egypt for the space of seven years. The historian Sibt al Jauzi,
in his work called the ' Mirror of the Time ' (Mirat as Zamdn),
states that 'Abd al Malik began the building here in the year 69
of the Hijrah, and completed the same in the year 72 (A.D. 687
690). But others say that he who first built the Dome (of the
Rock) of the Holy City was Sa'id, the son of the Khalif 'Abd al
Malik, and that he afterwards, too, restored it.f Now, on the
authority of Rija ibn Hayah, and of Yazid ibn Sallam,J 'Abd al
Malik's freedman, it is reported that, on the occasion of building
the Dome of the Rock of the Holy City and the Aksa Mosque,
the Khalif came himself from Damascus to Jerusalem, and thence
despatched letters into all the provinces, and to all the governors
of cities, to the following effect : ' 'Abd al Malik doth wish to
build a Dome over the Rock in the Holy City, whereby to shelter
the Muslims from heat and cold ; as also a Mosque. But he
wisheth not to do this thing without knowing the will of his
people. Therefore, let the Muslims write their desires, and what-
soever may be their will.' And letters came back to him from the
governors of the provinces which assured the Commander of the
Faithful of the full approval of all men, and that they deemed his
intention a fitting and pious one. And said they : * We ask of
Allah to vouchsafe completion to what the Khalif doth undertake,
in the matter of building in the Noble Sanctuary, and the Dome
therein, and the Mosque ; and may it succeed under his hand, for
* Quoted by S., p. 280.
f This assertion is found in none of the early authorities.
Abu'l Mikdam Hija ibn Hayah ibn Jarul, of the Kindah tribe, was a man
celebrated for his learning, and in later years a great friend of the second
Khalif 'Omar (Ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz). Yazid ibn Sallam. his colleague, was a native
of Jerusalem. The account following is transcribed by Mujir ad Din. Cairo
Text, pp. 241, 242.
JERUSALEM. 145
it is a noble deed, both for him and for those who follow after
him.'
" Then the Khalif brought together craftsmen from all parts of
his empire, and commanded that they should set forth the propor-
tions and elevation of the building before they began to build the
Dome itself. So they laid out the plan thereof in the Court of
the Haram Area. And he commanded them to build a Treasure
House on the east side of the Rock, and the same is the building
which now stands close beside the Rock.* So they began to
build. And the Khalif set apart great sums of money, and
instituted to be overseers thereof Rija ibn Hayah, and Yazid ibn
Sallam, commanding them to spend the same, and giving them
authority therein. So they made expenditure for digging the
foundations, and building up the structure, until (all was finished
and) the moneys were (in large part) expended. When the edifice
was complete and solidly constructed, so that not a word could
be said for improvement thereto, these men wrote to the Khalif
at Damascus, saying : * Allah hath vouchsafed completion to what
the Commander of the Faithful commanded concerning the build-
ing of the Dome over the Rock of the Holy City, and the Aksa
Mosque also. And no word can be said to suggest improvement
thereto. And verily there remaineth over and above of what the
Commander of the Faithful did set apart for the expense of the
same the building being now complete and solidly built a sum
of 100,000 (gold) dinars. So now let the Commander of the
Faithful expend the remnant in whatever matter seemeth good to
him.' And the Khalif wrote to them in reply : ' Let this, then,
be a gift unto you two for what ye have accomplished in the
building of this noble and blessed house.' But to this Rija and
Yazid sent answer : ' Nay, rather, first let us add to this the
ornaments of our women and the superfluity of our wealth, and
then do thou, O Khalif, expend the whole in what seemeth best
to thee.' Then the Khalif wrote commanding them to melt down
the gold, and apply it to the adornment of the Dome. So all this
gold was melted down and expended to adorn the Dome of the
Rock ; to an extent that it was impossible, by reason of the
* Now called the Dome of the Chain. See p. 153.
10
146 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
gold thereon, for anyone to keep the eye fixed and look at it.
They prepared also two coverings, to go over the Dome, of felts
and of skins of animals, and the same were put over it in the
winter-time to preserve it from the rains, and the winds, and the
snows. Rija ibn Hayah and Yazid ibn Sallam also surrounded the
Rock with a lattice-screen of Sasim (or ebony-wood), and out-
side the screen they hung between the columns curtains of
brocade.
' Each day fifty and two persons were employed to pound and
grind down saffron, working by night also, and leavening it with
musk and ambergris, and rose-water of the Juri rose. At early
dawn the servants appointed entered the Bath of Sulaiman* ibn
'Abd al Malik, where they washed and purified themselves before
proceeding to the Treasure Chamber (al Khazanah), in which was
kept the (yellow perfume of saffron called) Khuhlk. And, before
leaving the Treasure Chamber, they changed all their clothes,
putting on new garments, made of the stuffs of Marv and Herat,
also shawls (of the striped cloths of Yaman), called 'Asb ; and,
taking jewelled girdles, they girt these about their waists. Then,
bearing the jars of the Khuluk in their hands, they went forth and
anointed therewith the stone of the Rock, even as far as they
could reach up to with their hands, spreading the perfume all over
the same. -And for the part beyond that which they could reach,
having first washed their feet, they attained thereto by walking on
the Rock itself, anointing all that remained thereof; and by this
the jars of the Khuluk were completely emptied. Then they
brought censers of gold and of silver, filled with aloes wood of
Kimar (in Java\ and the incense called Nadd, compounded with
musk and ambergris ; and, letting down the curtains between the
columns, they swung to and fro the censers, until the incense
did rise into all the space between the columns and the Dome
above, by reason of the quantity thereof. Which done, and the
* The MSS. of Suyftti read " Hammam Sulaiman," as though it were the
Bath of King Soloman. I have found no notice of this bath elsewhere ; and
it is on the authority of the Muthtr that the Bath is named after the son of the
Khalif 'Abd al Malik. The Jiiri rose is named from the town of Jur or Gvir, in
Persia, afterwards called Fairuzabacl. which was so celebrated for its roses as to
be surnamed Balad al Ward, "the City of Roses." (Yakut, ii. 147.)
JERUSALEM. 147
curtains again drawn up, the censers were carried outside the
building, whereby the sweet smell went abroad, even to the
entrance of the market beyond (the Haram Area), so that all who
passed therein could scent the perfume. After this the censers
were extinguished Proclamation then was made by criers from
before the screen : ' The Sakhrah, verily, is open for the people,
and he who would pray therein, let him come.' And the people
would hasten to come and make their prayer in the Sakhrah, the
most of them performing two Rika'ahs (or prayer prostrations),
while some few acquitted themselves of four. And he who had
thus said his prayers, when he had gone forth again, (friends)
would perceive on him the perfume of the incense, and say :
' Such an one hath been in the Sakhrah.' (After the prayer-time
was over, the servants) washed off with water the marks left by
the peoples' feet, cleaning everywhere with green myrtle (brooms),
and drying with cloths. Then the gates were closed, and for
guarding each were appointed ten chamberlains, since none might
enter the Sakhrah except the servants thereof on other days
than the Monday and the Friday.
"On the authority of Abu Bakr ibn al Harith, it is reported
that, during the Khalifate of 'Abd al Malik, the Sakhrah was
entirely lighted with (oil of) the Midian Ban (the Tamarisk, or
Myrobalan) tree, and oil of Jasmin, of a lead colour. (And this,
says Abu Bakr, was of so sweet a perfume, that) the chamberlains
were wont to say to him : * O Abu Bakr, pass us the lamps that
we may put oil on ourselves therefrom, and perfume our clothes ' ;
and so he used to do, to gratify them. Such are the matters
relating to the days of the Khalifate of 'Abd al Malik.
" Further, saith Al Walid, it hath been related to me by 'Abd
ar Rahman ibn Mansur ibn Thabit who said, I hold it of my
father, who held it of his father, and he from his grandfather
that, in the days of 'Abd al Malik, there was suspended from the
chain hanging down in the middle of the Dome of the Rock a
single unique pearl, also the two horns of the Ram of Abraham,
and the Crown of the Chosroes. But when the Khalifate passed
to the Abbasides, they had all these relics transported to the
Ka'abah which may Allah preserve !"
TO 2
148 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
The following, which occurs in the seventh chapter of the
Muttur, is quoted both by Suyuti and by Mujir ad Din. (S., 285;
M. a. D., 248.) A somewhat similar account will be found below
(p. 161), on the much earlier authority of Ibn al Fakih.
" On the authority of the Hafidh Ibn 'Asakir, the testimony
going back to Abu-1-Ma'ali al Mukaddasi, it is related how ; Abd
al Malik built the Dome of the Rock and the Aksa Mosque.
Further, 'Ukbah states that in those days there were six thousand
beams of wood used for the ceilings, besides the beams for
the wooden pillars ; and the doors were fifty in number. There
were six hundred pillars of marble, and seven Mihrabs, and of
chains for suspending the candelabra four hundred, less fifteen
(that is three hundred and eighty-five), of which two hundred and
thirty were in the Aksa Mosque, and the remainder (namely, one
hundred and fifty-five) in the Dome of the Rock. The length of
all these chains put together was 4,000 ells, and their weight
43,000 Syrian (pounds or) ratls.* There were five thousand
lamps ; and, in addition to these, they were wont to light two
thousand wax candles on the Friday nights, and on the middle
nights of the months of Rajab, Sha'aban, and Ramadhan, as also
on the nights of the Two (Great) Festivals. (In the various parts
of the Haram Area) are fifteen (small) domes, besides the (Great)
Dome of the Rock ; and on the Mosque-roof there were seven
thousand seven hundred sheets of lead, each sheet weighing 70
ratls, Syrian measure (420 Ibs.). And this did not include what
was on the roof which covered the Dome of the Rock. All this
was of that which was done in the days of 'Abd al Malik. And
this Khalif appointed for the perpetual service of the Noble
Sanctuary three hundred servants, who were (slaves) purchased
with moneys of the Royal Fifth from the Treasury ; and as these
servants in time died off, each man's son, or his son's son, or
some member of his family, was appointed in his place. And so
the service hath continued on for all time, generation after genera-
tion ; and they receive their rations from the public treasury.
" In the Haram Area there are twenty-four great water cisterns,
and of minarets four to wit, three in a line on the west side of
* 258,000 Ibs.
JERUSALEM. 149
the Noble Sanctuary, and one that rises above the Bab al Asbat
(the (late of the Tribes). And among the servants of the Haram
there were Jews, from whom was exacted no poll-tax. Originally
there were but ten men, but, their families increasing, the number
rose to twenty ; and it was their business to sweep away the dust
left by the people at the times of visitation, both in summer and
in winter, and also to clean the places of ablution that lay round
the Aksa Mosque. There were also ten Christian servants of the
Noble Sanctuary, whose office went by inheritance after the same
fashion. These made, and likewise swept, the mats of the
Mosque. They also swept out the conduits which carried the
water into the cisterns, and, further, attended to the keeping clean
of the cisterns themselves, and other such service. And among
the servants of the Sanctuary, too, were another company of-
jews, who made the glass plates for the lamps, and the glass:
lantern bowls, and glass vessels and rods. And it was appointed
that from these men also no poll-tax was to be taken, nor from
those who made the wicks for the lamps ; and this exemption
continued in force for all time, both to them and their children
who inherited the office after them, even from the days of 'Abd al -
Malik, and for ever.
" Al VValid further writes on the warranty of Abu 'Amir ibn
Damrah, who reported it on the authority of 'Ata, who had it of
his father that in early days it was the Jews who were appointed
to light the lamps in the Noble Sanctuary, but that when the
Khalif 'Omar ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz came to reign, he deprived them
of this office, and set in their place servants who had been pur-
chased with moneys of the Royal Fifth. And a certain man of
these servants a slave bought of the Royal Fifth came once to
him, and said : ' Give me manumission, O Khalif !' But 'Omar
answered : ' How then ! verily I cannot emancipate thee ! but
shouldst thou depart (of thine own accord), behold I have no
power over a hair even of the hairs of thy dog !' "*
Such are the traditional (or apocryphal) accounts, very probably,
for the most part, an invention of the fourteenth century, which
* Mujir ad Din, who gives the anecdote, has " a hair of the hairs of thy
body " in place of " of thy dog." (M. a. D., 250.)
REFERENCES TO THE PLAN OF THE HARAM AREA IN THE
TIME OF NASIR-I-KHUSRAU.
A. Bab Baud, Gate of David.
B. Bab as Sakar, Gate of Hell.
C. Gate leading to the Cloisters of the Sufis.
D. Bab al Asbat, Gate of the Tribes.
E. Bab al Abwab, Gate of Gates.
F. Bab al Taubah, Gate of Repentance.
G. Bab ar Rahmah, Gate of Mercy.
H. The ancient Bab al Burak, or Bab al Janaiz, Gate of the Funerals.
I. Ancient " Single Gate"\ /One of these is the Bab al 'Ain, Gate
J. Ancient " Triple Gate " J " \ of the Spring.
K. Bab an Nabi, Gate of the Prophet, the ancient " Double Gate."
L. Steps leading down to the subterranean Passage-way of this Gate.
M. Bab Hittah, Gate of Remission.
N. Dome of the Chain.
O. Kubbat ar Rasul, Dome of the Prophet.
P. Kubbat Jibrall, Dome of Gabriel.
Q. Stairway, called Makam an Nabi, Station of the Prophet.
R. Stairway, called Makam Ghuri.
' > Western Stairways.
U. Northern Stairway, called Makam Shami.
V. Eastern Stairway, called Makam Sharki,
W. Oratory of Zachariah.
X. Dome of Jacob.
Y. Small Mosque, of old a Hall.
Z. Steps leading down to the Mosque of the Cradle of Jesus.
a. Colonnade of Archesx
" L Along the West Wall.
c ' "1
c-
\
e. V
Colonnades along the North Wall.
/
g. Colonnade of forty-two arches, along South Wall, joining the Western
Colonnade.
3
a. n
- >
J AH AN NUM. , TH
JERUSALEM. 151
purport to relate the events of 'Omar's conquest, and 'Abd al
Malik's buildings, in the seventh century of our era. How much
credence should be placed in them it is difficult to say. They
rest, doubtless, on some foundation of fact ; but the form of the
greater part of the narratives is very evidently apocryphal.
We may now return to the older Chronicles and Geographers,
whose accounts are more worthy of credence, and their authorities
more easily controlled, and we shall resume the subject of the
description of the Haram Area, proceeding to quote the earlier
accounts concerning the various buildings, other than the Aksa
Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, which occupy the area of the
Noble Sanctuary.
THE DOME OF THE CHAIN.
A few paces east of the Dome of the Rock stands a small
cupola, supported on pillars, but without any enclosing wall,
except at the Kiblah point, south, where two of the pillars have a
piece of wall, forming the Mihrab, built up in between them. This
is called Kubbat as Silsilah " the Dome of the Chain." As early
as 913 it is mentioned by Ibn 'Abd Rabbih as "the Dome where,
during the times of the children of Israel, there hung down the
chain that gave judgment (of truth and lying) between them."
(I. R., iii. 368.)
According to the most generally accepted tradition, King David
received from the angel Gabriel, not a chain, but an iron rod,
with the command to span it across his judgment-hall, and on it
to hang a bell. When the rod was touched in turn by plaintiff
and defendant, the bell sounded for the one with whom the right
lay.* The Arab Geographers, however, all speak of a chain ;
and Yakut, describing this Dome, particularly mentions that it
was here that was "hung the chain which allowed itself to be
grasped by him who spoke the truth, but could not be touched by
him who gave false witness, until he had renounced his craft, and
repented him of his sin." (Yak., iv. 593.)
The Dome of the Chain is also mentioned by Ibn 'Abd
Rabbih's contemporary, Ibn al Fakih, who describes it as, in his
* See Weil, Biblische Legenden der Muse/manner, p. 215.
152 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
day, " supported on twenty marble columns, and its roof is
covered with sheets of lead." (I. F., 101.) In Mukaddasi's days
the Dome of the Chain is also described as merely a cupola,
" supported on marble pillars, being without walls." (Muk.,
169.)
So frail a structure would, doubtless, have frequently suffered
damage by the earthquakes, which, as is recorded, threw down
many of the buildings in the Haram Area. And this circum-
stance will explain the varying accounts given at different times
of the number of the pillars. At the present day there are
six in an inner circle, supporting the cupola, and eleven in the
outer, two of these being built into the Mihrab. This gives a
total of seventeen pillars (see plan facing p. 114).
The Persian traveller Nasir, writing in 1047, gives the following
description of the building he visited (see plan, p. 126) :
" Besides the Dome of the Rock there is (on the platform) the
dome called Kubbat as Silsilah (or the Dome of the Chain). The
' Chain ' is that which David peace be upon him ! hung up,
and it was so that none who spoke not the truth could grasp it ;
the unjust and the wicked man could not lay hand on it, which
same is a certified fact, and well known to the learned. This
Dome is supported on eight marble columns, and six stone piers ;
and on all sides it is open, except on the side towards the Kiblah
point, which is built up, and forms a beautiful Mihrab." (N. Kh.,
48.)
Idrisi, in 1154, writing probably from Christian accounts, and
at a time when the Holy City was in the occupation of the
Crusaders, speaks of the Dome of the Chain as "the Church
which is called the Holy of Holies." (See above, p. 131.) Ac-
cording to the author of the Citez de JJierusalem, a work of about
the year 1225, the building was in his day known to the Christians
as "the Chapel of St. James the Less, because it was here he
was martyred, when the Jews threw him down from the Temple."*
Saladin, after reconquering the Holy City (1187), must have put
back the Dome of the Chain to its original use as a Muslim
oratory. According to Mujir ad Din, the Dome of the Chain was
* Palestine Pilgrim's Text, p. 13.
JERUSALEM. 153
rebuilt by the Egyptian Sultan Baibars, who reigned from 1260
1277. (M. a. D., 434.)
It is often stated that the Dome of the Chain was first built to
serve as the model, from which the architects of 'Abd al Malik
subsequently erected the Great Dome of the Rock. This idea is,
I believe, found in no Arab writer previous to Mujir ad Din
(1496). Suyuti (see above, p. 145), from whom he copies most
of his descriptions, has not a word of this; and Mujir ad Din
apparently either himself invented the idea of the Dome of the
Chain having been built as a model, or else inserted it as the
account current among the learned of his own day. Mujir ad
Din's statement is as follows :
" It is said that (the Khalif) 'Abd al Malik described what he
desired in the matter and manner of the building of the Dome
(of the Rock) to his architects, and they, while he sojourned in
the Holy City, built the small dome which stands to the east of
the Dome of the Rock, and is called the Dome of the Chain."
A few lines before, Mujir ad Din further states that the Khalif
laid up the seven years' tribute of Egypt, which had been amassed
for the building expenses of the Dome of the Rock " in the
Dome which stood over against the Rock on the eastern side, and
which he had caused to be built here near the olive-tree. This he
made his store-chamber, filling it with the moneys." (M. a. D., 241.)
Mujir ad Din further describes the Dome of the Chain as in his
day " supported by seventeen columns, not counting the two (on
either side) of the Mihrab." (M. a. D., 372.) At the present
day, as has been noted above, there are seventeen columns in all,
including those in the Mihrab, so that apparently since 1496 some
alterations have been effected in this building.
Minor Domes. Besides the Great Dome of the Rock, and the
smaller Dome of the Chain to the east of it, there have at all times
stood on the Platform at least two other smaller Domes, built to
commemorate the incidents of the Prophet's Night Journey.
These edifices were of so frail a structure as constantly to have
suffered by the shocks of earthquake, and it is not surprising to
find some confusion in the names under which they are described
at various dates.
154 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
In 903, according to Ibn al Fakih, "in the northern part (of the
platform) are (i) the Dome of the Prophet, (2) and the Station of
Gabriel ; (3) while near the Sakhrah (the Dome of the Rock) is
the Dome of the Ascension." His contemporary, Ibn 'Abd
Rabbih, on the other hand, mentions "(i) the Dome whence the
Prophet made his ascent into Heaven ; (2) the Dome over the
spot where the Prophet prayed (in communion) with the (former)
Prophets; ... (3) further the Praying-place of Jibrail." Mukad-
dasi (who wrote in 985) states that the two Minor Domes were
called " the Dome of the Ascension, and the Dome of the
Prophet." According to Nasir's account in 1047, m n ^ s day the
two were known as the Dome of the Prophet, and the Dome of
Gabriel.
From these various statements the conclusion presumably to be
drawn is, that of the two domes lying north-west of the Sakhrah ;
that standing furthest to the west was in Ibn al Fakih's time
called "(i) the Dome of the Prophet;" and this is identical with
that mentioned by Ibn 'Abd Rabbih as "(2) the Dome where the
Prophet prayed," with Mukaddasi's " Dome of the Prophet," also
described a little later under the same name by Nasir-i-Khusrau.
The Dome, occupying the position of the one here spoken of, goes
at the present day by the .name of the Kubbat al Mi raj , the Dome
of the Ascension. (Plan at the end of the present chapter, R.)
Between the present Dome of the Ascension and the Great
Dome of the Rock, there would seem to have stood in old days
a second Minor Dome, occupying the position of the present
Dome or Prayer-Station of the Angel Gabriel. (Plan at the end
of the chapter, at S.) P'rom very early times, however, the names
of these Minor Domes would appear to have been constantly
interchanged or altered. Thus this second Dome is called by
Jbn al Fakih "(3) the Dome of the Ascension;" by Ibn 'Abd
Rabbih "(i) the Dome whence the Prophet ascended;" by
Mukaddasi "the Dome of the Ascension;" and by Nasir "the
Dome of Gabriel." Further, besides these two Domes, Ibn al
Fakih, and Ibn 'Abd Rabbih, both mention " the Praying-Station
of Gabriel," which is not spoken of by either Mukaddasi or Nasir.
The only actual description of the two Minor Domes, stand-
JERUSALEM. 155
ing to the north-west of the Sakhrah, previous to the Crusades is
that left us by Nasir-i-Khusrau in 1047. After describing the
I )ome of the Rock and the Dome of the Chain, he continues :
" And again, on the platform, is another Dome, that surmounts
four marble columns. This, too, on the Kiblah side, is walled in,
forming a fine Mihrab. It is called Kubbat Jibrail (the Dome of
Gabriel); and there are no carpets spread here, for its floor is
formed by the live-rock, that has been here made smooth. They
say that on the night of the Mi'raj (the Ascent into Heaven) the
steed Burak was tied up at this spot, until the Prophet peace
and benediction be upon him ! was ready to mount. Lastly,
there is yet another Dome, lying 20 cubits distant from the Dome
of Gabriel, and it is called Kubbat ar Rasul (or the Dome of the
Prophet) peace and benediction be upon him! This Dome,
likewise, is set upon four marble piers." (N. Kh., 49.)
To what purpose these Minor Domes were put during the
occupation of the Holy City by the Crusaders is unknown.
Shortly after Saladin had reconquered Jerusalem in 1187, what
is now known of the Dome of the Ascension was rebuilt, having
fallen to ruin. Mujir ad Din, writing in 1496, states :
"The present Dome of the Ascension was rebuilt in 597 (1200)
by the governor of Jerusalem, 'Izz ad Din 'Othman ibn 'Ali
Az Zanjili, the more ancient Dome having fallen to ruin."
(M. a. D., 373.) An inscription giving this date may still be read
on the present Kubbat al Mi'raj.
The position of the minor Dome, known of old as the Dome of
the Prophet, appears to have been a matter of controversy among
the learned in the days that followed the Muslim re-occupation of
Jerusalem. Yakut (1225) refers to it as the Dome of An Nabi
Daudt\\Q Prophet David. (Yak., iv. 594.) This change of
name from Muhammad to David is probably what led Suytiti,
writing in 1470, to put forward the following theory for the
identification of the older Dome of the Prophet, as described by
Muslim writers previous to the time of the Crusaders. Suyuti's
indentification of this Dome of the Prophet with the Dome of the
Chain has not, it will be noted, been adopted by subsequent
authorities. Suyuti writes :
156 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" The Dome named the Dome of the Prophet is, as I under-
stand it, the one which lies to the east of the Sakhrah, being also
called the Dome of the Chain. It was built by the Khalif 'Abd al
Malik. For I would point out that in the Haram Area, beside
the Dome of the Ascension, there are but two other Domes. One,
a small Dome, stands at the edge of the Sakhrah Platform, on the
right hand side of the northernmost of the steps leading up to the
Platform from the west.* I believe at the present day this is in the
hands of certain of the servants of the Noble Sanctuary, and is put to
some use on their part ; certainly no one in the Holy City con-
siders this to be the Dome of the Prophet. The only other Dome
(in the Haram Area) stands back near the Gate of the Noble
Sanctuary, on the northern side, called the Gate of the Glory
of the Prophets, known also as the Bab ad Dawadariyyah. This
is called the Dome of Sulaiman not after the Prophet Solomon,
but perhaps after Sulaiman, the son of the Khalif 'Abd al Malik.
As to the Dome of the Ascension, it is, as everybody knows,
on the Platform of the Sakhrah, and is much visited by the
pilgrims. Hence, therefore, it is likely that what Al Musharraf,
and the author of the Mustaksa and of the Bffith an Nufus,
referred to under the name of the Dome of the Prophet, is that
now known as the Dome of the Chain, which was built by the
Khalif 'Abdal Malik."
" Now, as to the place where the Prophet prayed, in the com-
pany of the former Prophets and the Angels, it is said that this
spot is beside the Dome of the Ascension, where, on the Platform
of the Sakhrah, there used to stand a beautiful Dome. When, how-
ever, they flagged the Platform of Sakhrah, they did away with
this Dome, and set in its place a handsome Mihrab, the floor of
which is laid in a circle with red marble slabs, after the manner of
other parts of the Sakhrah Court. This, then, as it is said, in the
place occupied by this Mihrab, is where the Prophet made his
prayer with the Angels and Prophets. He then advanced a step
forward from that place, and there rose up before him a ladder of
gold and a ladder of silver, and thereby he ascended into Heaven."
(S., 260, 261 ; the last paragraph is copied by M. a. D., 374.)
>' At present known as Kubbat al Khidr, the Dome of St. George.
JERUSALEM. 157
The Platform and Stairways. The Platform occupying the
centre of the Haram Area, on which stand the Dome of the Rock
and the other minor Domes, according to Ibn al Fakih, measured
in his days (903) " 300 ells in length, by 140 ells across, and
its height is 9 ells." (I. F., 100.) Taking the ell to be the royal
ell, measuring i \ feet (the evaluation derived from the dimensions
recorded of the Dome of the Rock), this gives 450 feet, by 210,
and is considerably less than the measurement of the present Plat-
form, which is, taking the mean of length and breadth, 540 feet by
465 feet. In 1047 we have Nasir-i-Khusrau's measurements
recorded, namely, " 330 cubits by 300 "; but the cubit (in the
Persian Arsh) here used is the long cubit of nearly 2 feet.
This, if the figures be correct, gives rather under 660 feet, by
600 feet,a nd would go to prove that at Nasir's date, just pre-
vious to the Crusades, the Platform was somewhat larger than
it is at present. Further, it had apparently been raised in the
height since Ibn al Fakih's days. Then it was 9 (shorter) ells, or
13^ feet, above the level of the Court ; in Nasir's time it was
12 (longer) ells, somewhat under 24 feet high. At the present day
the upper level is only some 10 feet above that of the rest of the
Haram Area.
Mujir ad Din, writing at the close of the fifteenth century, gives
the measures he himself had made, which prove that in his day
the Platform must have occupied exactly the same lines it does at
the present time. The measurement he uses is the Workman's ell,
which was approximately 2\ English feet. The following is a
translation from his text :
" The dimensions of the Platform (Sahn) of the Sakhrah are
these : From the South Wall, between the two stairways, the line
passing between the East Gate of the Dome of the Rock and the
Dome of the Chain, up to the North Wall, opposite the Bab
Hittah, measures 235 ells. From the East Wall, over against the
Olive-trees that are near the Kubbat at Tumar (the Dome of the
Roll), to the West Wall opposite the Sultan's Madrasah, measures
189 ells of the Workman's ell." (M. a. D., 377.)
Ibn al Fakih states that the platform was (in 903) ascended by six
flights of steps. Mukaddasi, about eighty years later, says there
158 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
were four stairways leading up from the four sides ; Nasir-i-
Khusrau, in 1052, however, gives six again as the number of the
stairways, and he adds the following description of the Platform
and its stairways :
" In the middle of the Court of the Haram Area is the Plat-
form, and set in the midst thereof is the Sakhrah (Rock) which,
before the revelation of Islam, was the Kiblah (or point turned to
in prayer). The Platform was constructed by reason that the
Rock, being high, could not be brought within the compass of the
Main-building (of the Aksa Mosque). Wherefore the foundations
of this Platform were laid, measuring 330 cubits by 300, and the
height thereof 12 ells. The surface of the same is level, and
beautifully paved with slabs of marble, with walls the like, all the
joints being riveted with lead. Along the edge of its four sides
are parapets of marble blocks that fence it round, so that, except
by the openings left especially therefor, you cannot enter. From
the Platform you command a view over the roofs of the (Aksa)
Mosque. There is an underground tank in the midst of the Plat-
form, whereto is collected, by means of conduits, all the rain-water
that falls on the Platform itself; and the water of this tank is
sweeter and purer than is the water of any other of the tanks
in the Haram Area."
" Now, regarding the stairways that lead up on to the platform
from the court of the Noble Sanctuary, these are six in number,
each with its own name. On the side (south) towards the Kiblah,
there are two flights of steps that go up on to the platform. As
you stand by the middle of the retaining wall of the platform
(facing south), there is one flight to the right hand and another
to the left. That lying on the right is called Makam an Nabi
(the Prophet's Station) peace be upon him ! and that lying
on the left is called Makam Ghuri (or the Station of Ghuri).
The stairway of the Prophet's Station is so called because
that on the night of his ascent, the Prophet upon him be
peace and blessing ! went up to the platform thereby, going
thence to the Dome of the Rock. And the road hither from
the Hijjaz comes by this stair. At the present day this stairway
is 20 cubits broad, and each step is a rectangular block of care-
JERUSALEM. 159
fully chiselled stone in one piece, or sometimes in two. The
steps are laid in such fashion that it would be possible to ride on
horseback up the stairway to the platform. At the top of this
stairway are four piers of marble, green, like the emerald, only
that the marble is variegated with numberless coloured spots ; and
these pillars are TO cubits in height, and so thick that it would
take two men to encompass them. Above the capitals of these
four pillars rise three arches one opposite the gate, and one on
either side ; and (the masonry) crowning the arches is flat-topped
and rectangular, with battlements and a cornice set on it. These
pillars and the arches are ornamented in gold and enamel-work,
than which none can be finer.
"The balustrade round the (edge of the) platform is of green
marble, variegated with spots, so that one would say it was a
meadow covered with flowers in bloom. The stairway of Makam
Ghuri consists of a triple flight, and the three lead up together on
to the platform one in the middle, and two on either side so
that by three ways can people go up. At the summit of each of
the three flights are columns supporting arches with a cornice.
Each step is skilfully cut of squared stone, as before described, and
each may consist of two or three blocks in the length. Over the
arcade above is set a beautiful inscription in gold, stating that the
same was constructed by command of the Amir Laith ad Daulah
Nushtakin Ghtiri ; and they told me that this Laith ad Daulah
had been a servant of the Sultan of Egypt, and had caused these
steps and gangways to be built.
"On the western side of the platform there are, likewise, two
flights of steps leading up thereon, and constructed with the same
skill as those I have just described. On the east side there is
but one flight. It is built after a like fashion to the foregoing,
with columns and an arch with battlements above, and it is
named Makam Sharki (or the Eastern Station). On the northern
side (of the platform) there is also a single stairway, but it is
higher and broader than are any of the others. As with those,
there are here columns and arches built (at the top of the flight),
and it goes by the name of Makam Shdmi (that is, the Syrian or
Northern Station). According to the estimate I made, these six
160 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
flights of steps must have had expended upon them 100,000 dinars
or (,50,000)." (N. Kh., 43-45-)
Nushtakin Ghuri, here spoken of, was a Turk who commanded
the armies of the Fatimite Khalif Adh Dhahir. From having
originally been a slave in Khoten, he rose to become Governor
of Syria, where he ruled between the years 1028 1041, shortly
before Nasir's visit.
The Court of the Hararn Area. The early accounts which
describe the various buildings Domes, Mihrabs, and Oratories
found scattered over the great court of the Haram Area make
mention of edifices, some of which, with the lapse of time,
have now completely disappeared, while others, having changed
their names, can only doubtfully be identified with the existing
structures.
During the eighty-eight years that Jerusalem remained in the
hands of the Crusaders, the buildings of the Haram Area were
turned to various purposes religious or domestic by the
Templars, to whom the Noble Sanctuary had been granted.
When Saladin retook the Holy City, it was in the third generation,
counting from those who had been dispossessed by Godfrey de
Bouillon, and many of the Muslim traditions attached to the then
extant buildings of the Haram Area had doubtless been forgotten
or become falsified.
Of the Haram Area in general, in the beginning of the tenth
century we have two accounts (dating from 903 and 913), which,
judging from their points of coincidence, may possibly have been
derived from the same source. It is not certain whether either
of the respective authors of these accounts (Ibn al Fakih and
Ibn 'Abd Rabbih) ever personally visited the places they purpose
to describe. Portions of these accounts have been frequently
copied by subsequent writers, and notably by Suyuti, from whom
Mujir ad Din has so freely plagiarized. (See above, p. 148.)
Some of the details mentioned in these two accounts have already
been commented upon in the foregoing pages ; the description of
the other small buildings described as occupying the Haram Area
in the tenth century will now be noted and compared with the
accounts that have come down to us from other sources. First,
JERUSALEM. 161
however, it will be well to give complete translations of the two
descriptions of the Haram Area.
Ihn al Fakih's description, written in 903, is as follows:
" It is said that the length of the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem
is 1,000 ells, and its width 700 ells. There are (in its buildings)
four thousand beams of wood, seven hundred pillars (of stone),
and five hundred brass chains. It is lighted every night by one
thousand six hundred lamps, and it is served by one hundred and
forty slaves. The monthly allowance of olive-oil is 100 kists,*
and yearly they provide 800,000 ells of matting, also twenty-five
thousand water-jars. Within the Noble Sanctuary are sixteen
chests for the volumes of the Kuran set apart for public service,
and these manuscripts are the admiration of all men. There are
four pulpits for voluntary preachers, and one set apart for the
salaried preacher ; and there are also four tanks for the ablutions.
On the various roofs (of the Mosque and domes), in place of clay,
are used forty-five thousand sheets of lead. To the right hand of
the Mihrab (in the Aksa Mosque) is a slab on which, in a circle,
is written the name of Mohammed the blessing of Allah be
upon him .'and on a white stone behind the Kiblah (wall, to the
south) is the inscription : In the name of Allah the Merciful, the
Compassionate, Mohammed is Allah's Apostle. JrJamzah ivas his
helper, f Within the Mosque are three Maksurahs (or railed
spaces) for the women, each Maksurah being 70 ells in length.
There are within and without (the Noble Sanctuary) in all fifty
gates (and doors)."
Next follows the description of the Dome of the Rock and the
minor domes already translated (p. 120). Ibn al Fakih then
continues :
11 Among the gates (of the Haram Area) are Bab Daud, Bab
Hittah, Bab an Nabi (Gate of the Prophet), Bab at Taubah (Gate
of Repentance), and there is here the Mihrab Maryam (Prayer-
niche of Mary), Bab al Wadi, Bab ar Rahmah (Gate of Mercy),
with the Mihrab Zakariyya, Abwab al Asbat (the Gates of the
* The Kist (from the Greek Ee<rr?;c, and the Roman Sextarius) \vns
equivalent to about a quart and a half of our measure,
t The Prophet's uncle, who fell at the Battle of Ohod.
II
T62 PALESTINE- UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Tribes), with the Cave of Abraham, the Mihrab of Jacob, and
Bab Dar Umm Khalid (the Gate of the House of Khalid's
Mother). Outside the Haram Area at the City Gate to the west
is the Mihrab Daud (David's Prayer-niche). The place of the
tying-up of (the steed) Al Burak is in the angle of the southern
minaret. The Spring of Siloam ('A in Sulwan) lies to the south
of the Haram Area. The Mount of Olives overlooks the Haram
Area, being separated therefrom by the Wadi Jahannum. From
(the Mount of Olives) Jesus was taken up ; across (the Wadi) will
extend the bridge As Sirat ; and there, too, is the Place of Prayer
of the Khalif 'Omar, also many of the tombs of the prophets."
(I. F., 100, 101.)
Ibn 'Abd Rabbih's notice, written some ten years later than the
above, differs in some of the details. It is as follows :
" Description of the Mosque of the Holy City, and what therein is
of Holy Places of the Prophets. The length of the Haram Area
is 784 ells, and its breadth 455 ells, of the ells of the Imam.*
They light the Noble Sanctuary with 1,500 lamps, and in its
structures have been employed 6,900 beams of wood. Its gates
are 50 in number, and there are 684 columns. Within the
Sakhrah (the Dome of the Rock) are 30 columns, and the
columns which are outside the Sakhrah are 18 in number. t The
Dome is covered by means of 3,392 sheets of lead, over which are
placed plates of brass, gilded, which number 10,210. The total
number of the lamps that light the Sakhrah is 464, which hang by
hooks and chains of copper. The height of the Sakhrah of the
Holy City (in ancient days), when it reached heavenward, was
12 miles, and the people of Jericho (to the east) profited by its
shadow, as did also those of 'Am was (Emmaus, to the west); and
there was set over it (in the early times) a red ruby, which shone,
giving light even to the people of the Balka, so that those who
lived there were able to spin by the light thereof. In the Masjid
* If the reading Imam be correct, the Imam in question is doubtless the
Khalif 'Ali, who inaugurated many novelties besides the standard of the ell.
t See p. 122. It will be observed that As Sakhrah (the Rock) is used to
denote both the Dome and the Rock itself ; just as Al Masjid means the whole
Haram Area, and more particularly the Mosque (or Masjid) Al Aksa in its
southern part.
JERUSALEM. 163
(al Aksa ?) arc three Maksurahs (enclosed spaces) for the women,
the length of each Maksurah being 80 ells, and its breadth 50 ells.*
In the Mosque are 600 chains for the suspending of the lamps,
each chain being 18 ells in length; also seventy copper sieves!
(Ghirbal\ and seven cone-shaped stands (called Sanaubar&f) for
the lamps. Further, seventy complete copies of the Kuran, and
six copies of greater size, each page of which is made of a single
skin of parchment ; these last are placed on desks. The Noble
Sanctuary contains ten Mihrabs, fifteen Domes, twenty-four cisterns
for water, and four minarets, from whence they make the call to
prayer. All the roofs, that is, of the Mosque, the Domes, and the
minarets, are covered with gilded plates. Of servants appointed
to its service, there are, together with their families, in all 230
persons, called Mamluks (slaves), all of whom receive their rations
from the Public Treasury. Monthly there is allowed (for the
Noble Sanctuary) 700 Kists Ibrahimi of olive-oil, the weight of
the Kist being a Ratl and a half of the larger weight { The
allowance yearly of mats is 8,000 of the same. For the hanks of
cotton for the wicks of the lamps, they allow yearly 12 Dinars
(^6) ; for lamp-glasses, 33 Dinars ; and for the payment of the
workmen, who repair the various roofs in the Noble Sanctuary,
there is 15 Dinars yearly.
" Of Holy Places of the Prophets in Jerusalem are the following :
Under the corner of the (Aksa) Mosque is the spot where the
Prophet tied up his steed, Al Burak. Of gate leading into the
Noble Sanctuary are the Bab Daud, the Bab Sulaiman, and the
Bab Hittah, which last is intended by Allah when he saith $ ' Say
ye, Hittah (forgiveness), and there is no God but Allah ;' but
some men say Hintah (wheat), making a jest thereof, for which
may Allah curse them in their impiety ! Also there are the Bab
Muhammad, and the Bab at Taubah (the Gate of Repentance),
where Allah vouchsafed repentance to David. And the Bab ar
Rahmah (the Gate of Mercy), of which Allah has made mention in
His Book, saying : 'A gate, within which is Mercy ; while without
* See p. 100. t What purpose these served is unknown.
% That is, about nine pounds to the Kist.
Kuran, ii 55. II Kuran, Ivii. 13.
II 2
1 64 PALESTINE. UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
the same is the Torment,' alluding to the Wadi Jahannum, which
lies on the east of the Holy City. And the Abwab al Asbat (the
Gates of the Tribes), the tribes being the Tribes of the Children
of Israel ; and the Gates here are six in number. Also the Bab
al Walid, the Bab al Hashimi, the Bab al Khidr (the Gate of Elias
or St. George), and the Bab as Sakinah (the Gate of the Shechina,
or Divine Presence).
"In the Noble Sanctuary further are the Mihrab of Mary
(Mother of Jesus), the daughter of 'Amran, whither the Angels
were wont to bring her fruits of winter during the summer-time,
and summer-fruits in the winter -time. Also the Mihrab of
Zakariyya (father of John the Baptist), where the Angels gave
him the good news (of the birth) of John, at a time when he was
standing praying therein. Also the Mihrab Ya'kub (Jacob), and
the Kursi Sulaiman (the Throne of Solomon), where he used to
pray to Allah ; and the Minaret of Abraham, the Friend of the
Merciful, whither he was wont to retire for worship. There are
likewise here the Dome whence the Prophet (Muhammad) made
his ascent into Heaven; the Dome over the spot where the
Prophet prayed with the Prophets (of old) ; also the Dome where,
during the times of the Children of Israel, there did hang down
the Chain that gave judgment (of truth or lying) between them.
Further, the Praying-place of Gabriel (Musalla Jibrail), and the
Praying-place of Al Khidr (Elias).
" Now when thou enterest the Sakhrah (or Dome of the Rock),
make thy prayer in the three corners thereof; and also pray on
the slab which rivals the Rock itself in glory, for it lies over a gate
of the Gates of Paradise. The birthplace of Jesus, the son of
Mary, is (at Bethlehem) about 3 miles distant from the Noble
Sanctuary ; Abraham's Mosque (which is Hebron), wherein is his
tomb, is 18 miles from the- Holy City. The (Malikite) Mihrab of
this Mosque lies on the western side. And among the excellent
sights of the Holy City are these. The place of the Bridge As
Sirat is in the Holy City, and from Jahannum (Hell) may Allah
keep us therefrom ! it will reach even unto the Holy City. On
the Day of Resurrection Paradise will be brought as a bride to the
Holy City, and the Ka'abah also shall come thither with her, so
JERUSALEM. 165
that men will exclaim, ' All hail to those who come as pilgrims !
and all hail to her to whom pilgrimage is made !' And the Black
Stone shall be brought, in bridal procession, to the Holy City;
and the Black Stone on that day shall be greater in size than the
Hill of Abu Kubais.* Among the Excellencies of the Holy City
are these, namely : that Allah did take up His Prophet into
Heaven from the Holy City, as likewise Jesus, the son of Mary.
And verily in the last days the Antichrist shall conquer Christ in
all and every part of the earth, excepting only in the Holy City.
And Allah hath forbidden Gog and Magog to set foot in the Holy
City. Lastly, all the Saints and Holy Men of God are from the
Holy City, and Adam and Moses and Joseph, and the great
company of the Prophets of the Children of Israel all left by testa-
ment the command that they should be buried in the Holy City."
(I. R., iii. 366-368.)
Mukaddasi, writing in 985, corroborates some of the details
mentioned by the two foregoing authorities. He notes :
" Of the holy places within (the Haram Area) are the Mihrab
Maryam (the Oratory of Mary), Zakariyyah (of Zachariah), Ya'kub
(of Jacob), and Al Khidr (of Elias, or St. George), the Station of
the Prophet (Afakdm an Nabi), and of Jibrail (Gabriel), the Place
of the Ant, and of the Fire, and of the Ka'abah, and also of the
Bridge As Sirat, which shall divide Heaven and Hell. Now, the
dimensions of the Haram Area are : length, 1,000 ells of the
royal Hashimite ell and width, 700. In the ceiling of its various
edifices there are four thousand wooden beams, supported on seven
hundred marble columns, and the roofs are overlaid with forty-
five thousand sheets of lead. The measurement of the Rock
itself is 33 ells by 27, and the cavern which lies beneath will
hold sixty-nine persons. The endowment provides monthly for
100 Kists of olive-oil, and in each year they use 800,000 ells
of matting. The Mosque is served by special attendants ; their
service was instituted by the Khalif 'Abd al Malik, the men
being chosen from among the Royal Fifth of the captives
taken in war, and hence they are called Al Akhmas (the!
Quintans). None besides these are employed in the service,
* The hill overhanging the city of Makkah on the west.
1 66 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
and they take their watch in turn beside the Rock." (Muk. y
170, 171.)
The various points of interest in the preceding descriptions
must now be noticed in detail, and compared with the descriptions
derived from other authorities.
The Cradle of Jesus. The small Mosque in the substructures of
the ancient tower at the south-eastern angle of the Haram Area,
known at the present day as the Cradle of Jesus, is spoken of by
Ibn 'Abd Rabbih (see above, p. 164) under the name of "The
Mihrab of Mary, the daughter of 'Amran (and Mother of Jesus)."
Mukaddasi, too, mentions among the Holy places in the Haram
Area " The Mihrab Maryam and Zakariyyah."
The earliest detailed description of this spot is to be found in
Nasir's diary. He writes : "Adjacent to the East Wall, and when
you have reached the south (eastern) angle (of the Haram Area)
the Kiblah-point lying before you, south, but somewhat aside
there is an underground Mosque, to which you descend by many
steps. It is situated immediately to the north of the (South) Wall
of the Haram Area, covering a space measuring 20 ells by 15, and
the chamber has a roof of stone, supported on marble columns.
Here was of old the Cradle of Jesus. The Cradle is of stone, and
large enough for a man to make therein his prayer prostrations,
and I myself said my prayers there. The Cradle is fixed
into the ground, so that it cannot be moved. This Cradle is
where Jesus was laid during His childhood, and where He held
converse with the people. The Cradle itself, in this Mosque, has
been made the Mihrab (or oratory) ; and there is, likewise, on the
east side of this Mosque the Mihrab Maryam (or Oratory of Mary),
and another Mihrab, which is that of Zakariyya (Zachariah)
peace be upon him ! Above these Mihrabs are written the verses
revealed in the Kuran that relate respectively to Zachariah and to
Mary. They say that Jesus peace be upon Him ! was born in
the place where this Mosque now stands. On the shaft of one of
the columns there is impressed a mark as though a person had
gripped the stone with two fingers ; and they say that Mary, when
taken in the pangs of labour, did thus with one hand seize upon
the stone, leaving this mark thereon. This Mosque is known by
JERUSALEM. 167
the title of Mahd 'Isa (the Cradle of Jesus) peace be upon Him !
and they have suspended a great number of lamps there of
silver and of brass, that are lighted every night." (N. K.h., 33.)
I hiring the occupation of the Crusaders, the Templars used these
substructures under the south-east angle of the Haram Area for the
stabling of their horses, and by the Latin chroniclers the place is
mentioned under the name of the Stables of Solomon. 'AH of
Herat, who wrote in 1173, during the Latin occupation, speaks of
these substructures under this name. He writes :
" Below the Haram Area are the Stables of Solomon, where he
kept his beasts ; and they say there are here in the walls stones of
enormous size, and the mangers for the beasts are to be seen even
to this day. There are also here the Caverns known as the Cradle
of Jesus, the son of Mary peace be upon Him !" (A. H., Oxf.
MS., f. 39.)
Previous to the advent of the Crusaders, many buildings stood
in the great Court of the Noble Sanctuary, no traces of which
remain at present ; and, from the descriptions of Mujir ad Din
and Suyuti, many would seem to have already disappeared at the
date of Saladin's re-occupation of the Holy City. Thus Nasir-i-
Khusrau, in 1047, writes :
" In the Court of the Haram Area, but not upon the Platform,
is a building resembling a small Mosque. It lies towards the
north side, and is a walled enclosure (hadhirah\ built of squared
stones, with walls of over a man's height. It is called the Mihrab
Daud (or the Oratory of David). Near this enclosure is a rock,
standing up about as high as a man, and the summit of it, which
is uneven, is rather smaller than would suffice for spreading
thereon a (prayer) rug. This place they say was the Throne
of Solomon (Kursi Sulaiman), and they relate that Solomon
peace be upon him ! sat thereon while occupied with building the
Noble Sanctuary."
This Mihrab Daud, which is said to be in the northern portion
of the Haram Area, and near the Kursi Sulaiman, can hardly be
the place named at present the " Oratory of David," which is a
niche in the great south wall of the Haram Area. It is probably
the same building as the Kubbat Sulainmn of Mujir ad Din,
1 68 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
before the Bab al 'Atm, and immediately to the south-west of that
gate. (Plan facing p. 172, at V.)
As regards the identification of the Mihrab of David, Suyuti,
writing in 1470, discusses the subject in the following terms :
" Now, as to the Mihrab Daud, there is diversity of opinion as
to its identification. Some say it is the great Mihrab, which is in
the south wall of the Haram Area ; others, that it is the great
Mihrab in the neighbourhood of the Mimbar (or pulpit of the
Aksa Mosque). The author of the work called Al Path al Kiidsi
asserts that the Mihrab of David is in the Castle of the Holy
City, in the place where David was wont to pray. For his dwelling
being in the Castle, here, also, was his place of worship. Now,
the Mihrab, whereof mention, by Allah, is made in the Kuran in
the words (chapter xxxviii. 20), ' When they mounted the wall of the
Mihrab,' is generally admitted to be the Mihrab of David, where
he prayed, and this was situated in the Castle, that being his place
of worship ; while the spot now known as the great Mihrab, which
is inside the Haram Area, is looked upon as the place where
David was wont to pray when he came into the Haram Area.
When 'Omar came hither, he sought to follow in David's steps,
and made his prayer in the place where David had prayed.
Hence the place came to be called the Mihrab of 'Omar, from the
fact of his having prayed there for the first time on the day of the
capitulation of Jerusalem ; but originally this had been named the
Mihrab of David. In confirmation of this is the fact of 'Omar's
known veneration of this spot. For when he asked of Ka'ab,
' Which place wishest thou that we should institute as the place of
our prayer in this Sacred Area ?' and Ka'ab had answered, ' In
the hinder part thereof, where it may be near the Sakhrah, so that
the two Kiblahs (namely, of Moses and of Muhammad) may be
united,' 'Omar had said, ' O Abu Ishak, so thou wouldst act still
in Jew fashion? Are we not a people to whom the forepart of
the Holy Area belongs as of right ?'* Then 'Omar marked out the
Mihrab, which had been that of David, and where he had been
wont to worship in the Haram Area. Thus 'Omar's opinion, and
his veneration for this spot, both confirm the view that David, in
* See p. 142.
JERUSALEM. 169
ancient times, had fixed on this place, and had chosen the same
as his place of prayer." (S., 262 264.)
Besides the building called the Oratory of David, Nasir
mentions two other Domes as standing in the northern part of the
Haram Area. The first of these the Dome of Jacob (Kubbat
Ya'kub) he says, stood near the colonnade, running along the
wall from the present Bab Hittah then called the Gate to the
Cloisters of the Sufis to the north-west angle of the Haram Area.
(See below, p. 176 ; also on Plan facing p. 150, at X.)
The other dome stood apparently in the north-east angle of the
Haram Area (Plan facing p. 150, W). It was called the Oratory
of Zachariah (Mihrab Zakariyya). Of this no trace remains at the
present day. The Dome of Jacob is probably that now known
under the name of the Kubbat Sulaiman, the Dome of Solomon.
(Plan facing p. 172, U.)
Concerning the Throne of Solomon, which Mukaddasi and
Nasir both mention, the following traditional account is given by
Suyuti :
"It is also related that Solomon God's prophet when he had
finished the building (of the Temple), sacrificed three thousand
heifers and seven thousand ewes at the place which is in the after
(or northern) part of the Haram Area, in the vicinity of the Bab
al Asbat (the Gate of the Tribes). This is the spot which is now
occupied by the building called the Throne of Solomon." (S.,
258 ; see Plan facing p. 172, V.)
This passage is copied by Mujir ad Din, who, however, adds
that, according to the received tradition of his day, the place
which is known as the Kursi Sulaiman is within the dome known
as the Dome of Sulaiman, near the Bab ad Duwaidariyyah.
(M. a. D., in ; Plan facing p. 172, U.)
Of other Domes, Mujir ad Din (in 1496) mentions the follow-
ing :
" Kubbat Musa (the Dome of Moses) stands opposite the Bab
as Silsilah (the Gate of the Chain). It is not called after Moses,
and has no traditional connection with him. It was rebuilt in 649
(1251), and was anciently called Kubbat ash Shajarah, the Dome
of the Tree." (M. a. D., 375.)
170 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" Kubbat at Tumar, the Dome of the Roll, stands on the edge
of the platform at the south-east corner." (M. a. D., 376.)
Speaking of the minarets of the Haram Area, Mujir ad Din
writes : " The four minarets occupy the same position as did those
of the days of 'Abd al Malik. The first of them is at the south-
west angle of the Haram Area, above the Madrasah of Fakhr ad
Din. The second is above the Gate of the Chain. The third is
at the north-west angle, and is called Madhanat al Ghawanimah.
It is near the gate of that name (Plan facing p. 172, at F), and
was rebuilt about the year 697 (1298). The fourth is the minaret
between the Gate of the Tribes and the Gate Hittah. It was
rebuilt in 769 (1367)." (M. a. D., 379, 380.)
In conclusion it may be useful briefly to recapitulate the various
minor Domes and Shrines of the Haram Area, mentioned by the
authorities prior to the first Crusade, after which date so many
alterations were effected among the edifices of the Noble Sanctuary.
The present Dome of the Ascension is that called the Dome of
the Prophet, by Ibn al Fakih ; the Dome of the Ascension, by
both Ibn 'Abd Rabbih and Mukaddasi ; and the Dome of the
Prophet, by Nasir-i-Khusrau.
The present Dome of Gabriel (close to the Dome of the Rock)
is that called the Station of Jibrail, by Ibn al Fakih ; the Prayer-
station of Jibrail, by Ibn 'Abd Rabbih ; the Dome, of the Prophet,
by Mukaddasi; and the Dome of Jibrail, by Nasir-i-Khusrau.
The Dome where the Prophet prayed with the Former Prophets
is mentioned by Ibn 'Abd Rabbih. Mukaddasi also speaks of the
Station of the Prophet, and the Station of Gabriel, as among the
Shrines in the Haram Area.
The Station of Al Khidr (St. George or Elias) is mentioned by
Ibn al Fakih, Ibn 'Abd Rabbih and Mukaddasi, the last naming
it a Mihrab.
The present Cradle of Jesus is mentioned by Ibn al Fakih, Ibn
'Abd Rabbih, Mukaddasi, and Nasir-i-Khusrau, who also speak of
the Mihrab Maryam, and the Mihrab Zakariyyah.
Another Mihrab Zakariyyah, or Dome, near the north-west
angle of the Haram Area, is also mentioned by Nasir-i-Khusrau
(unknown at the present day).
JERUSALEM. 171
The Cave of Abraham is mentioned by Ibn al Fakih, and the
Minaret of Abraham by Ibn 'Abd Rabbih (both unknown at the
present day).
The Place of the Ant, the Place of the Fire, and the Place of
the Ka'abah, are all mentioned by Mukaddasi.
The Mihrab of Jacob is mentioned by Ibn al Fakih, Ibn 'Abd
Rabbih, and Mukaddasi ; the Dome of Jacob, in the north part of
the Noble Sanctuary, is described by Nasir-i-Khusrau.
The Mihrab of David, in the north part of the Haram Area, is
mentioned by Nasir-i-Khusrau.
The Throne of Solomon is mentioned by Ibn 'Abd Rabbih
and Nasir-i-Khusrau.
The place of the Bridge between Heaven and Hell, called As
Sirat, is mentioned by Ibn al Fakih, Ibn 'Abd Rabbih, and
Mukaddasi.
The tying-up place of the steed Burak is mentioned by Ibn al
Fakih and Ibn 'Abd Rabbih.
i-72 PALESTINE -UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
REFERENCES TO THE PLAN OF THE HARAM AREA AT THE
PRESENT DAY.
A. Bab as Silsilah, Gate of the Chain.
B. Bab al Mutawadda, Gate of the Place of the Ablution ; or Bab al
Matarah, Gate of Rain.
C. Bab al Kattanin, Gate of the Cotton Merchants.
D. Bab al Hadid, Gate of Iron.
E. Bab an Nadhir, Gate of the Inspector.
F. Bab al Ghawanimah, Gate of the Ghanim Family.
G. Babal 'Atm, Gate of the Darkness ; also called Bab Sharaf al Anbiya,
Gate of the Glory of the Prophets, or Bab ad Dawtklariyyah,
Gate of the Secretariat.
H. Bab Hittah, Gate of Remission.
I. Bab al Asbat, Gate of the Tribes.
J. Bab at Taubah, Gate of Repentance. )
K. B^b ar Rahmah, Gate of Mercy. | The Golden Gate "
L. Walled-up Gate, anciently called Bab al Janaiz, Gate of the Funerals,
or Bab al Buralc.
M. Ancient " Single Gate," walled up.
N. Ancient " Triple Gate," walled up.
O. Ancient " Double Gate," leading to the underground Passage-way,
under the Aksa Mosque.
P. Bab al Magh^ribah, Gate of the Western Africans ; below it is the
now walled-up B&b an Nabi, Gate of the Prophet.
Q. Kubbat as Silsilah, Dome of the Chain.
R. Kubbat al Mi'raj, Dome of the Ascension.
S. Kubbat Jibrall, Dome of Gabriel.
T. Kursi 'Isa, Throne of Jesus.
U. Kubbat Sulaiman, Dome of Solomon.
V. Kursl Sulaiman, Throne of Solomon.
W, W. Mahd 'Isa, Cradle of Jesus, and the Stables of Solomon.
X. Madrasah, or College, called Al Farisiyyah.
Y. Jami' al Magharibah, or Mosque of the Moghrebins.
Z. Baka'at al Baida, called incorrectly the Old AksS, in Crusading times
the Armoury of the Templars.
172
REFER
CHAPTER V.
JERUSALEM (continued).
The Gates of the Haram Area The Colonnades Size of the Haram Area
The Tanks and Pools.
The CJnirch of the Resurrection : The Miracle of the Holy Fite The
Garden of Gethsemane The Tomb of the Virgin Pater Noster Church
and Bethany The Church of the Ascension and of the Jacobites The
Church of Sion and Gallicantus.
City Gates: The Castle Wadi Jahannum and the Tomb of Absalom.
The Plain, As Sahirah : The Pool of Siloam The Well of Job-
Cavern of Korah.
THE GATES OF THE HARAM AREA.
IN the identification of the Gates leading into the Haram Area,
named in the various authorities, I cannot do better than quote
verbatim from a paper contributed by Colonel Sir C. Wilson to the
Palestine Exploration Fund "Quarterly Statement" for July, 1888
(p. 141), which is also inserted as Appendix C to my translation
of Nasir-i-Khusrau's Diary, published in the Palestine Pilgrim
Texts. In these proposed identifications I thoroughly concur, and
take this opportunity of expressing how much I feel indebted to
Sir C. Wilson for the aid he has afforded me in clearing up this
somewhat knotty point.
Before, however, entering on the subject of the identification of
the Gates, it will be convenient to recapitulate the lists given by
Ibn al Fakih, and Ibn 'Abd Rabbih, our two earliest authorities.
Following this will come Mukaddasi's list, then Nasir-i-Khusrau's
detailed notice of the Gates in 1047, after which we shall be in a
position to discuss the identification of the various names recorded
of the ancient Gates with those that at present exist.
Ibn al Fakih, 903, and Ibn 'Abd Rabbih, 913, the two earliest
authorities, do not apparently attempt to name the Gates in order,
174 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
but only at haphazard and incidentally to the general account of
the Domes and Mihrabs of the Haram Area. These Gates they
mentioned are the following (see above, pp. 161-164) :
IBN AL FAKIH. IBN 'ABD RABBIH.
Bab Baud. Bab Baud.
Bab Sulaiman.
Bab Hittah. Bab Hittah.
Bab an Nabi. Bab Muhammad.
Bab at Taubah. Bab at Taubah.
Bab al Wad!.
Bab ar Rahmah. Bab ar Rahmah.
Abwab al Asbat. Abwab al Asbat
(six in number).
Bab Dar Umm Khalid.
Bab al Walid.
Bab al Hashimi.
Bab al Khidr.
Bab as Sakinah.
The next list is that given by Mukaddasi in 985. He writes :
" The Haram Area is entered through thirteen openings, closed
by a score of Gates. These are :
(1) The Bab Hittah (the Gate of Remission).
(2) The two Gates of the Prophet.
(3) The Gates of the Mihrab Maryam
(the Gates of Mary's Oratory).
(4) The two Gates Ar Rahmah (of Mercy).
(5) The Gate of the Birkat (Pool of) Bani Israil.
(6) The Gates Al Asbat (of the Tribes).
(7) The Hashimite Gates.
(8) The Gate of Al Walid.
(9) The Gate of Ibrahim (Abraham).
(10) The Gate of Umm Khalid (the Mother of Khalid).
(IT) The Gate Baud (David)." (Muk., 170.)
. In his eulogy on the beauties of Jerusalem, Mukaddasi further
mentions " the Bab as Sakinah (The Gate of the Shechinah)
JERUSALEM. 175
and the Kubbat as Silsilah (the Dome of the Chain)."
(Muk., 151.)
Between Mukaddasi's descriptions in 985, and Nasir's visit in
1047, the earthquakes occurred which so seriously damaged the
Aksa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock. (See p. 101.) The
Gates doubtless also suffered damage ; the walls of the Haram
Area, as we know from the inscriptions (see p. 101), were cer-
tainly in part overthrown ; and when the Gateways were rebuilt
after the earthquakes, they presumably were given in some cases
new names.
Nasir-i-Khusrau writes of the Gates in the following terms :
" The Area of the Noble Sanctuary is paved with stone, the
joints being set in lead.
(i.*) "As we have said before, the Haram Area lies in the eastern
part of the city ; and through the bazaar of this (quarter) you
enter the Area by a great and beautiful gateway, that measures
30 ells (60 feet) in height, by 20 across. The gateway has
two wings, in which open halls, and the walls of both gateway
and halls are adorned with coloured enamels, set in plaster, cut
into patterns so beautiful that the eye becomes dazzled in contem-
plating them. Over the gateway is an inscription, which is set
in the enamels, giving the titles of the Sultan (who is the Fatimite
Khalif) of Egypt; and when the sun's rays fall on this it shines so
that the sight is bewildered at the splendour thereof. There
is also a great Dome that crowns this gateway, which is built
of squared stones. Closing the gateway are two carefully-con-
structed doors. These are faced with Damascene brass-work,
which you would take to be gold, for they are gilt, and orna-
mented with figured designs. Each of these doors is 15 ells
(30 feet) in height, by 8 ells across. The gateway we have just
described is called the Bab Daud (the Gate of David) peace
be upon him !
"After passing this Gateway of David (and entering the
Haram Area), you have, on the right, two great colonnades,! each
* The roman numerals show the order of the gates as they occur in the
walls, and are here added for purposes of reference. (See Plan facing p. 150 )
t These colonnades go along the western wall of the Haram Area (see
p. 190).
176 PALESTINE. UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
of which has nine-and-twenty marble pillars, whose capitals and
bases are of coloured marbles, and the joints are set in lead.
Above the pillars rise arches that are constructed of masonry
without mortar or cement, and each arch is constructed of no
more than five or six blocks of stone. These colonnades lead
down to near the Maksurah (or Main-building of the Aksa
Mosque).* On your left hand (as you enter the Gate of David),
and towards the north, there is likewise a long colonnade with
sixty-four arches, supported by marble pillars.
(ii.) " In this part of the wall (that is, in the colonnade between
the Gate of David and the north-west angle of the Haram Area)
is the Gate called Bab as Sakar (Gate of Hell).
(iv.) " In the north part (of the Haram Area) is a double gate-
way, the Gates of which are placed side by side, each being 7 ells
across, by 12 high. This gateway is called the Bab al Asbat (the
Gate of the Tribes).
(v.) " When you have passed this Gate of the Tribes, there is
still another great gateway in the breadth of the Haram Area
(or the North Wall) in the portion running eastward. There
are here three Gates side by side, of a like size to the Bab al
Asbat, and they are each fashioned in iron, and adorned with
brass, than which nothing can be finer. These (three) gates they
call the Bab al Abwab (the Gate of Gates), for the reason that,
whereas elsewhere the gateways are only double, there is here
a triple gateway.
"Running along the north part of the Haram Area, and
between the two gateways just mentioned, is a colonnade, with
arches that rest on solid pillars ; and adjacent thereto, a Dome that
is supported by tall columns, and adorned with lamps and
lanterns. This is called Kubbat Ya'kub (the Dome of Jacob)
peace be upon him ! for at this spot was his place of prayer.
(iii.) "And further along the breadth (or Northern Wall)
of the Haram Area is a colonnade, in the wall of which is a Gate
that leads to two Cloisters belonging to the Sufis, who have their
* The Main-building of the Aksa Mosque is often referred to by Nasir under
the denomination of the " Maksurah," which more properly is the name given
to the railed oratory for the Sultan which the Mosque contains.
JERUSALEM. 177
place of prayer here, and have built a fine Mihrab (or oratory).
There are always in residence a number of Sufis, who make this
(oratory) the place of their daily devotions ; except on Friday,
when they go into the Noble Sanctuary, in order to attend the
service of prayer therein. At the north (west?) angle of the
Haram Area is a fine colonnade, with a large and beautiful Dome.
On this Dome* there is an inscription, stating that this was
the Oratory (Mihrab) of Zakariyya the Prophet peace be upon
him ! for they say that he was wont to continue ceaselessly in
prayer at this spot.
(vi.) " In the Eastern Wall of the Haram Area there is a great
gateway skilfully built of squared stones, so that one might almost
say that the whole was carved out of a single block. Its height is
50 ells (100 feet), and its width 30, and it is sculptured and orna-
mented throughout. There are ten beautiful doors in this gateway
(set so close) that between any two of them there is not the space
of a foot These doors are all most skilfully wrought in iron and
Damascene brass-work, set in with bolts and rings. They say this
gateway was constructed by Solomon, son of David peace be
upon him ! to please his father. When you enter this gateway,
facing east, there are two great doors. The one on your right
hand is called Bab ar Rahman (the Gate of Mercy), and the other
Bab at Taubah (the Gate of Repentance) ; and they say of this
last that it is the Gate where God be He exalted and glorified !
accepted the repentance of David upon whom be peace !
"Near this gateway is a beautiful Mosque. f In former times it
was only a hall, but they turned the hall into a Mosque. It
is spread with all manner of beautiful carpets, and there are
servants especially appointed thereto. This spot is greatly
frequented of the people, who go to pray therein, and seek com-
munion with God be He exalted and glorified ! for this being
the place where David peace be upon him ! was vouchsafed
repentance, other men may hope to be turned likewise from their
sinfulness."
* Of this building no trace now exists. See p. 169.
t" This I understand to refer to a building occupying the position of what is
now known as Kursi Sulaiman, the Throne of Solomon (Plan facing p. 172, at V).
12
1 78 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
After describing the Mosque of the Cradle of Jesus and the
Great Aksa Mosque (see pp. 105, 166), Nasir continues :
" Beyond the Main-building (of the Aksa), along the great
(south) wall (of the Haram Area) afore-mentioned, rises a colon-
nade of two-and-forty arches,* the columns being all of coloured
marble. This colonnade joins the one that is along the west (wall
of the Area). Inside the Main-building (of the Aksa) there is a
tank in the ground, which, when the cover is set on, lies level
with the floor, and its use is for the rain-water, which, as it comes
down, drains therein.
(viii.tf) " In the south wall (of the Haram Area) is a gate
leading to the places for the ablution, where there is running
water. When a person has need to make the ablution (before
prayer), he goes down to this place, and accomplishes what is
prescribed ; for had the place (of ablution) been set without the
walls, by reason of the great size of the Haram Area, no one
could have returned in time, and before the appointed hour for
prayer had gone by.
"As I have written above, the Holy City stands on the summit
of a hill, and its site is not on level ground. The place, however,
where the Noble Sanctuary stands is flat and on the level ; but
without the Area the enclosing wall varies in height in different
places, seeing that where the fall is abrupt, the Haram wall is
the highest, for the foundation of the wall lies at the bottom of
the declivity ; and where the ground mounts, the wall, on the
other hand, has, of need, been built less high. Wherever, in the
city itself and in the suburbs, the level is below that in the Haram
Area, they have made gateways, like tunnels cut through the
ground, that lead up into the Court (of the Noble Sanctuary).
(viii.) "One such as these is called Bab an Nabi (or the Gate
of the Prophet) peace and blessing be upon him ! which opens
towards the Kiblah point that is, towards the south. (The
passage-way of this gate) is 10 ells broad, and the height varies
by reason of the steps. In one place it is 5 ells high, and in
* See p. 191. This is in the space afterwards occupied by the Hall erected
by the Knights Templars for their armoury, and which at the present day opens
from the Aks, Mosque, and is called Baka'at al Baidha, or Aksa al Kadimah.
JERUSALEM. 179
others the roof of the passage-way is 20 ells above you. Over
this passage-way has been erected the Main-building of the (Aksa)
Mosque ; for. the masonry is so solidly laid, that they have been
able to raise the enormous building that is seen here without any
damage arising to what is below. They have made use of stones
of such a size, that the mind cannot conceive how, by human
power, they were carried up and set in place. It is said, however,
that the building was accomplished by Solomon, the son of David
peace be upon him ! The Prophet peace and blessing be
upon him ! on the night of his ascent into heaven, passed into
the Noble Sanctuary through this passage-way, for the gateway
opens on the road from Makkah. Near it, in the wall, is seen the
imprint on the stone of a great shield. It is said to be that of
Hamzah ibn 'Abd al Mutallib, the Prophet's uncle peace be
upon him ! who once seated himself here with his shield slung
on his back, and, leaning against the wall, left the mark of the
same thereon. This gateway of the Haram leading into the
tunnelled passage-way is closed by a double-leafed door, and the
wall of the Haram Area outside it is of a height of near upon 50
ells. The reason for the piercing of this gateway was to enable
the inhabitants of the suburb lying obliquely beyond to enter the
Haram Area at their pleasure without having to pass through
other quarters of the city. To the right of this gateway there is
in the wall a block of stone 1 1 * cubits high and 4 cubits across ;
and this is larger than any of the other stones of the wall,
although there are many that measure 4 and 5 ells across, set in
the masonry at a height of 30 and 40 ells."
(vii.) " In the width of the Haram Area there is a gate, open-
ing towards the east, called Bab al 'Ain (or the Gate of the Spring),
passing out from which you descend a declivity to the Spring of
Silwan (Siloam)."
(ix.) "There is also another gate, the passage-way of which is
excavated in the ground, and it is called Bab al Hittah (the Gate
of Remission). They say that this is the gate by which God be
He exalted and glorified ! commanded the children of Israel to
enter the Noble Sanctuary, according to His word be He
* Other MSS. read " fifteen." These are the stones in the Great Course.
12 2
i8o PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
exalted ! (in the Kuran, chapter ii. 55) : ' Enter ye the gate with
prostrations, and say (Hittah), Remission! and We will pardon
you your sins, and give an increase to the doers of good.' "
(i.#.) "There is still another gate (to the Haram Area), and it
is called Bab as Sakinah (the Gate of the Shechinah, or Divine
Presence) ; and in the hall adjacent thereto is a mosque that has
many Mihrabs (or prayer-niches). The door of the entrance
thereof is barred, so that no one can pass through. They say
that the Ark of the Shechinah, which God be He exalted and
glorified ! has alluded to in the Kuran, was once placed here,
but was borne away by angels. The whole number of gates, both
upper and lower, in the Noble Sanctuary of the Holy City is nine,
as we have here enumerated them." (N. Kh., pp. 29-32, 39-43.)
The key to the puzzle presented by the varied nomenclature of
the gates of the Haram Area cannot be better given than in Sir
C. Wilson's own words. He writes :
'A comparison of the descriptions of Mukaddasi (985 A.D.)
and Nasir-i-Khusrau (1047 A.D.) with each other, and with the
description of Mujir ad Din (1496 A.D.) and existing remains,
enables me to identify many of the gates with some degree of
certainty, and to show that a change took place in the Arab
nomenclature of the gates between the eleventh and fifteenth
centuries possibly when Jerusalem was captured by Saladin.
Nasir describes the Bab an Nabi (Gate of the Prophet) beneath
the Mosque Al Aksa in such terms as to leave no doubt of
its identification with the double gateway and passage leading
upwards from it beneath the Mosque to the Haram Area. He
also mentions another gate Bab Hittah (Gate of Remission)
as being excavated in the ground; and the only known
gate of the Haram of this character is the closed Gate of
Muhammad, or of the Prophet, beneath the Bab al Magharibah.
If, now, we turn to Mukaddasi's list of gates, we find that he
commences with Bab Hittah, that his second gate is * the two
Gates of the Prophet,' and that he ends with the Gate Daud,
which is, without dispute, the Bab as Silsilah (the Gate of the
Chain) of the present day. The inference I draw from this is that
Mukaddasi named the gates in order, commencing with the Bab
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JERUSALEM. i8r
Hittah, and ending with the Bab Baud, and not, as might have
been supposed, at haphazard.
'In attempting to identify the Gates with those which now
exist, it is necessary to bear in mind that the Haram Area, with
its buildings and the approaches to it, has been much altered at
various periods, as, for instance, during the Latin kingdom, after
the recapture of the city by the Saracens, and when the walls
were rebuilt by the Sultan Sulaiman in the sixteenth century.'
Taking the list in the order given by Mukaddasi, and beginning
with the Bab Hittah, we must reverse the order of Nasir's enumera-
tion, who, entering at the Bab Daud, and turning to the left, takes
the Gates in the contrary order to that we shall now follow.
To the description given by Nasir (already quoted) are here
added the few notes taken from later authorities, ending with what
Suyuti, writing in 1470, has to tell of the history of the Gates
after their restoration at the hands of Saladin's successors.
Suyuti's description has been copied verbatim by Mujir ad Din,
who has added nothing to what he has borrowed without acknow-
ledgment from his predecessor. The substance of the proposed
identifications here following is taken from Sir C. Wilson's paper
referred to above.
Mukaddasi's Bab Hittah (i)* (Gate of Remission) is the
Bab al Hittah (ix.) of Nasir, described (above, p. 179) as
" excavated in the ground." Ibn al Fakih and Ibn 'Abd
Rabbih both mention this Bab Hittah (see p. 174). After
the Crusaders, however, it appears to have changed its name, and
the old Bab Hittah can only be identified with the present Bab
al Burak, or Bab an Nabi Muhammad (often called " Barclay's
Gate "), which lies half underground, and which may now be
entered beneath the modern Bab al Magharibah. Of the present
Bab al Magharibah above this ancient Gate, Suyuti writes as
follows : " Bab al Magharibah (the Gate of the Mogrebins or
Western Africans) is so called from its being in the neighbour-
hood of the Gate of the Mosque of the Mogrebins, where
* The Arabic numerals (i) to (n), and the Roman numerals (i.) to (ix.)
refer respectively to Mukaddasi's and Nasir's enumeration of the Gates given
on pp. 174-180.
1 82 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
they have their prayers. The quarter named from this Gate
lies at the south-eastern corner of the City. This Gate is also
called Bab an Nabi (the Gate of the Prophet)." (S., 268 ;
M. a. D., 383.)
Mukaddasi's " Two Gates of the Prophet " (2) (with Ibn al
Fakih's Bab an Nabi and Ibn 'Abd Rabbih's Bab Muhammad)
must correspond with Nasir's " Gate of the Prophet " (viii.),
which is described as being like a tunnel in the South Wall,
under the Aksa, and leading up by steps into the Court of the
Haram Area (see p. 178). This Gate (viii.) is, doubtless, the
same as that referred to (vm.a) by Nasir in another paragraph
(p. 178) as "leading to the places for the ablution " remains
of water-pipes and cells being still shown at this point in the sub-
structures of the Aksa ; for the ancient Gate of the Prophet under
the Aksa can only be the so-called Double Gate> long since Availed
up, but still to be seen closing the southern side of the vaults
under the Aksa.* These vaults in Mujir ad Din's time (1496)
were known as Al Aksa al Kadimah, the Ancient Aksa.
(M. a. D., 379.) As late as the date of Ibn Batutah's visit,
in 1355, if we are t believe that travellers account, the gateway
here was still open. He writes : " On three sides (of the Haram
Area) are many Gates, but on the Kiblah (or south) side it has, as
far as I know, only one Gate, which is that by which the
Imam enters." (I. B., i. 121.) This Gate is not mentioned
by either Suyuti or Mujir ad Din.
Mukaddasi's "Gates of the Mihrab Maryam " (3) must have
stood close to the Mihrab of Mary (now called the Cradle of
Jesus), mentioned by the same authority (see p. 165); these
Gates apparently correspond with the Bab al 'Ain (the Gate of
the Spring), described by Nasir (vii.), by which one could go
down to Siloam (see p. 179). The ancient "Single Gate," or
perhaps with greater probability the ancient "Triple Gate" both
in the eastern part of the South Wall, and leading to the sub-
* The illustration opposite shows the present appearance of this ancient
passage-way. The view is taken from a point immediately within the walled-
u p gateway in the South Wall. The illustrations facing pp. 177 and 181 show
the position and present appearance of the Double Gate from without.
LJ
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JERUSALEM. 183
structures of the " Cradle of Jesus " and the " Stables of Solomon,"
and both of which Gates are now walled up must, one or the
other, be the modern representative of this Gate. The Templars,
as before noted, stabled their horses in these substructures ; and
after Saladin's conquest of the Holy City, all means of egress
from the Haram Area, except west and north through the city,
being closed, all these Gates then came to be walled up.*
Ibn al Fakih speaks of a Bab al Wadi (see p. 161), which,
from its name, would appear likely to have opened on the
Wadi Jahannum (Kedron), on the east of the Haram Area. In
this part of the Haram Wall, and somewhat to the south of
the " Golden Gate," may still be seen a walled-up door, which
probably occupies the position of the gateway mentioned by
Ibn al Fakih. Of this walled-up Gate, Mujir ad Din notes as
follows : "In the Eastern Wall of the Haram Area, to the south
of the Gates of Mercy and Repentance, is a fine Gate now closed
with masonry. It lies opposite the steps leading down from
the Platform (of the Dome of the Rock) called Daraj (the Steps
of) al Burak. Some say this was the Gate al Burak by which the
Prophet entered on the occasion of his Night Journey. It was
also formerly called Bab al Janaiz (the Gate of the Funerals), for
the funerals went out by it in ancient times." (M. a. D., 380.)
Apparently somewhere in this part of the wall there was yet
another Gate, called the Gate of Jericho not to be confounded
with the City Gate of that name (see p. 214), now called the
(iate of St. Stephen. Mujir ad Din speaks of this Gate of
Jericho as near the spot where Muhammad ibn Kurram founder
of the Kurramite sect was buried in 255 (869). He adds :
" The Gate known as the Gate of Jericho has disappeared
long ago, and since the Frank occupation there is no trace
of it. Apparently it must originally have opened at a place near
the further end of the houses that are towards the Mount of
Olives." (M. a. D., 262.)
Ibn al Fakih's and Ibn 'Abd Rabbih's Bab ar Rahmah, and the
The accompanying illustrations show the present appearance of these
two walled-up Gates, the position of which in the South Wall is shown in the
illustration facing p. 177.
1 84 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" Two Gates Ar Rahmah " of Mukaddasi (4), are the Bab ar
Rahmah and the Bab at Taubah (vi.) of Nasir (see p. 177),
namely, the great closed gateway in the East Wall, known at the
present day to Europeans as the Golden Gate.* This Gateway
is still known to the Muslims under the name of the Gates of
Mercy and Repentance. Suyuti's account of it is as follows :
" The Bab ar Rahmah (the Gate of Mercy) lies to the east of
the Aksa Mosque, and is in the wall of which Allah has made
mention in the words (of the Kuran, Ivii. 13): 'But between
them (the Hypocrites and the Believers on the Judgment day)
shall be set a wall with a gateway, within which is Mercy,
while without the same is the Torment.' The valley which
lies beyond this Gate is the Wadi Jahannum. The Gate of
Mercy itself is inside the wall which encloses the Haram Area,
and the Gate referred to in the above verse of the Kuran as on
the Wadi Jahannum, is now closed, and will only be opened at
some future time, and by the will of Allah be He exalted !
And as to Bab at Taubah (the Gate of Repentance), it joins and
makes one with the Gate of Mercy, but through neither of them
at the present day do men pass. Near the Gate of Repentance,
and thus between the Gate of Mercy and the Gate of the Tribes,
is the house (Maskin) of Al Khidr and Iliyas (St. George and
Elias)." (S., 265 ; M. a. D., 380.)
This, the so-called Golden Gate, according to M. de Vogue (Le
Temple de Jerusalem, p. 68), who judges from the architectural
character of the building, dates from Byzantine times only, and,
in fact, was probably completed as late as the sixth century A.D.
The denomination of the " Golden Gate " does not occur ap-
parently before the thirteenth century (Saewulf), and the name
(Porta Aurea) is due to a misunderstanding by the mediaeval
pilgrims, whose knowledge of Greek was rudimentary, of vpa
upaia, "the gate called Beautiful," mentioned, in Acts iii. 2, as
the spot where St. Peter healed the lame man. The site of this
miracle, which must, from the context, have been performed near
one of the inner gates of the Temple, the early pilgrims and the
Crusaders, proceeding in their usually arbitrary manner, saw fit to
locate at this Byzantine structure.
* See the illustration facing p. 177.
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JERUSALEM. 185
Mukaddasi's "Gate of the Birkat Bani Israil " (5) must be
the easternmost gate in the north wall of the Harain Area,
which Nasir (see p. 176) calls the Bab al Abwab (the Gate of
Gates) (v.), and which, since Crusading days, has always been
known as the Bab al Asbat (the Gate of the Tribes). Suydti
writes of this gate as follows : " Bab al Asbat (the Gate of the
Tribes) is in the hinder (or northern) part of the Haram Area, not
far from the house of Al Khidr and Iliyas (St. George and Elias).
In the work called Fadail Bait al Mukaddas (the ' Excellences of
the Holy City'), by the Hafidh Abu Bakr al Wasiti the Khatib,
there is mention made of the Bab Maskin al Khidr (the Gate of
Al Khidr's house) as standing here ; but the author of the Muthir
al Ghiram gives no indication of any such gate having existed,
although he mentions the house of Al Khidr when enumerating
the saints who entered and sojourned in the Holy City. The
author of the Kitdb al Uns, on the authority of Shahr ibn Jaushab,
states that the house of Al Khidr is in the Holy City, at a spot
between the Gate of Mercy and the Gate of the Tribes ; and he
goes on to say that Al Khidr was wont to pray every Friday in
five different mosques namely, in the Mosque of Makkah, and
the Mosque of Al Madinah, and the Mosque of Jerusalem, and
the Mosque of Kuba (two miles south of Al Madinah), and on
every Friday night in the Mosque of Sinai." (S., 266 ; M. a. D.,
3i.)
From the preceding paragraph it naturally follows that the Gate
of the Tribes (Bab al Asbat) mentioned by Ibn al Fakih and
Ibn 'Abd Rabbih (pp. 161, 164), also the gate of this name men-
tioned by Mukaddasi (6), and (iv.) described by Nasir (see p. 176)
as opening in the north wall west of the " Gate of Gates," must
be identified with the gate, now and ever since Crusading times
called Bab al Hittah (the Gate of Remission). Suyuti, as will
be seen, applies to this (northern) gate (writing in 1470) the
legendary account which Nasir (in 1047) related anent the more
ancient Bab Hittah at the south-west corner of the Haram Area.
Suyuti writes : "Bab Hittah (the Gate of Remission) is so called
because the children of Israel were directed to enter their house
of prayer thereby, saying, 'Remission, O Lord, for our sins.'
The following is given on the uthority of 'Ali ibn Sallam ibn
1 86 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
'Abd as Sallam, who was told by his father that he had heard Abu
Muhammad ibn 'Abd as Sallam state as follows namely, that the
Brazen Gate,* which is in the (Aksa) Mosque, is the (celebrated)
Bab al Hamal al Ausat (the middle Ram Gate), and is of the
workmanship of the Chosroes ; and that the brazen gate which
closes the (main) gateway f of the Haram Area is the Gate of
David, through which he was wont to pass, going from Sion to
Solomon's Market-place ; while, lastly, the gate of the gateway
known at present (in 1470) as the Bab Hittah(Gate of Remission)
was formerly at Jericho, which city having come to ruin, the gate
was transported from thence to the Noble Sanctuary." (S., 267 ;
M. a. D., 381.)
The Hashimite Gates mentioned by Mukaddasi (7), and possibly
the gate of the same name (but noted in inversed order) given by
Ibn 'Abd Rabbih (see p. 164), most probably correspond to the
gate (iii.) said by Nasir (p. 176) to lead to the Cloisters of the
Sufis, and to open in the north wall west of his (Nasir's) Bab al
Asbat. It would, therefore, correspond with the modern Bab al
'Atm (Gate of the Darkness), which Suyuti notes was, in his day
(as at the present time), also called " Bab Sharaf al Anbiya (the
Gate of the Glory of the Prophets). It is that now, further,
called Bab ad Dawidariyyah.:}: It opens from the northern side
of the Haram Area." (S., 267 ; M. a. D., 382.)
Mukaddasi's Bab al Walid (8) (mentioned, but in different
order, by Ibn 'Abd Rabbih) is possibly the present Bab al
Ghawanimah (the northernmost in the west wall), of which Suyuti
speaks in the following terms. That, as he states, it was anciently
called the Gate of Abraham does not, however, correspond with
what follows in Mukaddasi, where the next gate (lying to the
south, presumably, of the Bab al Walid) is called the Bab Ibrahim.
Possibly, however, the names had become interchanged, as we
have already seen was the case in other instances. Suyuti's
description is as follows : " Bab al Ghawanimah (the Gate of the
* See p. 99. t The present Bab as Silsilah.
+ The Dawidariyyah is the house of the Dawidar more correctly the
Dawat-dur or Secretary, a Persian word signifying " he who carried the ink-
stand." It is also spelt Duwaidariyyah.
JERUSALEM. 187
Men of the Family of Ghanim*) is that adjoining the Lieutenant's
Palace (the Dar an Niyabah). It is the first .(or northernmost) on
the western side of the Haram Area. Anciently, it is said, this
gate was called Bab al Khalil (the Gate of Abraham * the Friend ')."
(S., 267; M. a. D, 383.)
Mukaddasi's Bab Ibrahim (9), if the foregoing identification be
accepted, would then correspond with the Bab as Sakar (Gate of
Hell), which Nasir (ii.) states is the only one opening, in his
day, in the west wall to the north of the Balp Daud. (See
p. 176.) This is apparently the modern Bab an Nadhir (the Gate
of the Inspector), of which Suyuti writes to the following effect :
u Bab an Nadhir (the Gate of the Inspector) is a gate that is said
never to have been restored. Anciently, it was called Bab Mikail
(the Gate of Michael) ; and, according to report, it is the gate to
which Gabriel tied the steed Al Burak on the occasion of the
Night Journey." (S., 267 ; M. a. D, 383.)
South of this gate, in the present western wall of the Haram
Area, is one built, presumably, since Saladin's days, since no
notice occurs of it in the more ancient writers. Suyuti speaks of
it by the name it bears at the present day. He writes :
" Bab al Hadid (the Iron Gate) is one that has been rebuilt (or
recently built). Anciently, it was called after Arghun al Kamili,+
who founded the Madrasah (or college) of the Arghuniyyah,
which lies on the left hand as you go out through it." (S., 268 ;
M. a. D., 383.)
Mukaddasi's "Gate of the Mother of Khalid " (10) (called
Dar Umm Khalid, of the House of Khalid's Mother, by Ibn al
Fakih) is probably the modern Bab al Kattanin (the Gate
of the Cotton Merchants' Bazaar) ; or it might possibly be
the gate to the north of this, called the Bab al Hadid, just
described; but this latter identification is the less likely of
the two. Suyuti writes of the first-mentioned gate : " Bab al
Kattanin (the Gate of the Cotton Merchants) is one of those that
has been restored. Al Malik an Nasir ibn Kala'un was the prince
* Descendants of Shaikh Ghnim ibn 'Ali, who was born near N&bulus in
562 (1167), and died in 632 at Damascus. Saladin made him chief of the
Khftnkah Saliihiyyah, the Derwish house founded by him at Jerusalem.
t Lieuienant of Syria. He died in 758 (1357).
1 88 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
who first built it ; but it afterwards fell into complete ruin and
disuse. When the late Naib (Lieutenant) of Syria, Tankiz an
Nasiri,* built the colonnade which runs all along the western wall
of the Noble Sanctuary, and the Suk al Kattanin (the Cotton
Market), he rebuilt, at the same time, this gate with the high
portal, seen here at the present day." (S., 268 ; M. a. D., 238.)
Immediately to the south of the above comes the Gate known
at the present day as Bab al Mutawadda (the Gate of the
Ablutions), or Al Matarah (Gate of Rain). This is a gateway
opened since Crusading time, and which Suyuti speaks of under
the name of the Gate of the Reservoir. He writes : " Bab as
Sikkayah (the Gate of the Reservoir) is said to be an ancient
Gate. It had fallen to ruin of recent years, but when the late
'Ala ad Din Al Busirf constructed the tank for the ablution, which
he gave the people, he rebuilt, too, this Gate. May it not be
allowed to fall again into decay!" (S., 268; M. a. D., 383.)
Lastly comes Mukaddasi's Bab Daud (n), the Great Gate of
David, by which Nasir (i.) begins his enumeration on entering the
Haram Area. It is now known as the Bab as Silsilah (the Gate
of the Chain). The adjoining Bab as Salam (Gate of Peace) is
that alluded to by Mukaddasi (see p. 174) in his preface as
the Bab as Sakinah, and described under the same name (\.a)
by Nasir (see p. 180) as having a hall and place of prayer
with many Mihrabs. Of these last, no traces remain at the
present day. These two Gates Suyuti speaks of in the following
words : " Bab as Silsilah (the Gate of the Chain), and the Bab as
Sakinah, stand side by side. The Bab as Silsilah was anciently
called the Bab Datid (David's Gate). Bab as Sakinah (the Gate
of the Shechinah or Divine Presence) opens near the Gate of the
Madrasah (or College), called Al Baladiyyah ; and close by it
also is the Southern Minaret. The Royal College, called Al
Madrasah al Ashrafiyyah, lies to the north of the same." (S., 268 ;
M. a. D, 383.)
The following table shows in a concise manner the proposed
identifications of the various Gates of the Haram Area :
* Tankiz al Hisami or An Nasiri was Lieutenant of Syria under Sultan An
Nasir Muhammad ibn Kala'un. Tankiz died 741 (1340).
t He died in 1291 A.D. See M. a. D., p. 606.
JERUSALEM.
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190 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
THE COLONNADES.
The colonnades running along the inner side of the boundary
walls of the Haram Area would appear to have stood, in the early
Muslim days, very much in the same positions which they now
occupy. Our earliest notice of them is in Mukaddasi, who says
(see p. 99) that " on the right hand " (that is, along the West
Wall) ran colonnades, as also "at the back" (that is, along the
North W T all) of the Haram Area were colonnades, the ceilings of
which are described as studded with mosaics.
The East W^all of the Haram Area, overhanging the Wadi Jahan-
num, and in which stands the Golden Gate, is stated to have no colon-
nades along it. Neither was there any colonnade along the portion
of the South Wall extending from the south-east angle (above the
Cradle of Jesus) to the Eastern Wall of the Aksa. From these
particulars it is evident that in Mukaddasi's days the Haram Area,
as far as the lateral colonnades are concerned, showed exactly
the appearance to be seen at the present day. Mukaddasi also
states the reasons (p. 99) why the Aksa was not placed sym-
metrically in the centre of the South Wall of the Haram Area.
The Persian traveller, Nasir-i-Khusrau (1047), gives us more
exact details of these colonnades, which agree very exactly with
what Mukaddasi (985) has described. Along the West Wall
Nasir states that to the right (south) of the Gate of David ran
two great colonnades, each with twenty-nine marble pillars (sec
p. 176). The two colonnades I understand to refer, the first, to
that running from the Gate of David to the Gate Bab al Hittah
(the present Bab al Magharibah) ; the second, from this last Gate
down to the south-west angle, where it joined the colonnade of
forty-two arches on the South Wall. (See Plan facing p. 150,
/7, a and g.) To the left of the Gate of David, northwards up
to the north-west angle, was a long colonnade of sixty-four arches.
The Gate of David (the present Gate of the Chain) had beside it
another Gate called the Bab as Sakinah (the Gate of the Shechinah,
or Divine Presence), which led to a hall with a small mosque
adjacent, in which were many oratories. (See p. 180.) Of this,
apparently no traces remain at the present day; and Mukad
JERUSALEM. 191
dasi, sixty years before Nasir, makes no mention of it as having
existed in his time. The North Wall of the Haram Area, which
in Mukaddasi's days had colonnades roofed in mosaic work, had
two sets of colonnades when seen by Nasir. From the Gate at
the north-east angle (the present Bab al Asbat), which Nasir
names the Bab al Abwab, westwards, to the next Gate, called by
him the Bab al Asbat (at present the Bab Hittah), was "a colon-
nade, with arches that rested on solid pillars." (Plan facing p. 150,
at/) And westward of this Gate again, presumably extending as
far as the north-west angle, and therefore joining the colonnade
along the West Wall, were two colonnades (see p. 177, and Plan,
at e and </), one beyond the other, in or near the westernmost of
which was the " large and beautiful Dome " of Zachariah (Plan, W),
of which, however, no traces remain at the present day.
The West Wall of the Haram Area, overhanging the Wadi
Jahannum, had no colonnade; and from the south-east angle,
along the South Wall, " for a space of 200 ells (or 400 feet)," to
the east wall of the Aksa, was (Nasir states), as at present, a bare
wall. The only colonnade mentioned by Nasir, of which no
mention is found in Mukaddasi, is that of " forty-two arches "
running along the South Wall, west of the Aksa, from the
western wall of the Mosque to the south-west angle of the Haram
Area, where it joined the colonnade of the W T est Wall. (Plan, g.)
This colonnade occupied the ground afterwards covered by the
Armoury of the Templars. (Seep. 107.)
After Nasir's visit came the century of the Crusades, and
then Saladin's restorations. Our next authority is Mujir ad Din
in 1496. He describes the colonnades he saw, and gives the
dates of their building or restoration, as will be found in the
following paragraphs : " The colonnades that go along the West
Wall inside were all built during the reign of Al Malik an Nasir
Muhammad ibn Kala'un (A.D. 1310-1341). The colonnade going
from the Magharibah Gate to the Gate of the Chain was built in
713 (1314); that running from the Minaret at the Gate of the
Chain to the Gate of the Inspector in 737 (1336) ; that from the
Gate of the Inspector to the Bab al Ghawanimah in 707 (1307).
The colonnades along the north wall were erected at the time of
192 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
the foundations of the respective buildings they flank." (M. a. D.,
376.) Since Mujir ad Din's days the colonnades must have been
frequently repaired ; but, as seen at the present day, they are, to
all intents, identical with those here described in 1496. (See
Plan facing p. 172.)
DIMENSIONS OF THE HARAM AREA.
The dimensions of the Haram Area are given by many of the
early authorities, some of whom apparently measured the great
court for themselves, while some merely copied the inscription on
a certain stone in the North Wall by whom set up is not known
on which the dimensions are recorded. This stone was re-
discovered by M. Clermont-Ganneau in 1874. The surface
is, unfortunately, much corroded by the weather this was
apparently the case even as early as the year 1351 and the
inscription can, at the present day, be only partially deciphered.
According to M. Ganneau's account, what may be clearly read is,
in translation, the following :
"/ the name of Allah the Compassionate, the Merciful, the
length of (the Haram Area of} the Mas/id is seven hundred and
four-and-***ty ells, and its breadth four hundred and fize-and-fifty
ells, the ell being the ell of ****."
In M. Ganneau's opinion, the space for the word representing
the tens, in the enumeration of the length, will only allow of its
having been either eighty or thirty ; thus, in full, 784, or 734.
Further, the specification of the Dhirtf, or ell, in M. Ganneau's
opinion, cannot have been " al Malik," or the royal ell ; because
the space available on the stone will not allow of the five letters of
this word (in the Arabic) having been inscribed here ; also, he
adds that such traces of letters as still remain do not correspond
with the strokes of the Arabic letters in the w r ord "al Malik."
The earliest mention of the exact dimensions of the Haram
Area is found in the account (see p. 162) written by the
Spanish Arab, Ibn 'Abd Rabbih, about the year 913. He
gives no reference to the inscribed stone slab in the North Wall,
but states the length of the Haram to be 784 ells, and the breadth
455 ells > the e11 bein g " the Imam elL " Good MSS - of lbn ' Abd
JERUSALEM. 193
Rabhih's work are, however, wanting, and for the word " Imam "
we have only the authority of the Cairo-printed edition to rely on,
and this is far from unimpeachable.
Ibn al Fakih and Mukaddasi, who are of the same century as
the Spanish Arab, only give the dimensions of the Haram Area in
round numbers, namely 1,000 ells by 700; and, according to Mukad-
dasi, the ell was the royal Hashimite ell, which measured about
18 inches in length. At this valuation we get 1,500 feet by 1,050
feet for the length and breadth, the present measurements being,
roughly length 1,500 feet, by 900 feet for the average breadth.
The Persian traveller Nasir-i-Khusrau, who visited Jerusalem
in 1047, is tne ft 1 " 5 * m so many words to mention the tablet M.
Ganneau has rediscovered in the North Wall. Nasir's account is
most circumstantial ; and, if the numbers in the Persian MS. of
could be depended upon (and all the known
agree in giving the same numbers), his testimony would settle the
point of what was the length originally inscribed on the tablet ;
for, in Nasir's days, the surface of the stone would appear to have
been still undamaged. Nasir's account is as folio
ie greater length of the Haram Area extends from north to
south; but if the space occupied by the Maksurah (or Aksa
Mosque) be deducted, the shape of the court is (roughly) square,
with the Kiblah point lying towards the south. Now, it was my
to obtain the measurements of the Haram Area, and I
said to myself: First, I will come exactly to know the place in all
its aspects, and see the whole thereof ; and afterwards will I take
the measurements. But after passing some time in the Noble
Sanctuary, and examining it, I came on an inscription upon a
stone of an arch in the north wall (of the Haram Area), not far from
the Dome of Jacob (Kubbat Va'kub) (Plan facing p. 150, X) on
whom be peace ! In this inscription the length of the Haram
was set down at 704 cubits (Ars/i), and the breadth at 455
cubits of the royal measure. The royal ell (gez-i-malik) is the
same as that which is known in Khurasan as the Gez-i-Shaigan
(the king's ell), and is equivalent to ij (common) cubits (ars/i),
or a fraction the less/'* (N. Kh., 28, 29, 31.)
* In this pas-a^e gez (ell) and arsk (cubit) are again used as synonymous
terras. See p. 128.
'3
194 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
The next authority, but one of no great weight in this matter,
is Idrisi, who states that the Haram Area measures 200 Ba' (or
fathoms), by 180 Ba', the B$ being "the space between the
extremities of the two hands of a full-grown man when they are
extended to the right and left." (See Lane's Dictionary, s. v.)
Taking the Ba' at 6 feet, this would only give us 1,200 feet for the
length, and 1,080 feet for the breadth.
The testimony of 'Ali of Herat is of greater weight. He writes,
describing the Haram Area in 1173: "I read on a stone the
following inscription : ' The length (of the Haram Area round] the
Mosque is 700 Royal e//s, and its breadth is 455.' This stone is
to be seen built into the north wall of (the Haram Area that
surrounds) the Aksa Mosque." (A. H., Oxf. MS., f. 37,
verso.)
From the close of the twelfth century (a few years before Sala-
din's reconquest of Jerusalem), when 'Ali of Herat wrote, no other
account has reached us of the dimensions of the Haram Area
until the middle of the fourteenth century, when (in 1355) the
traveller Ibn Batutah describes Jerusalem. His Diary was
written out, many years after his return home, from notes, and
hence it is not surprising to find that he puts the length (north to
south) for the breadth (east to west) of the Haram Area, and vice
versa. Whether he copied the figures from the tablet in the North
Wall is not stated. After a general description of the Mosque
at Jerusalem, Ibn Batutah continues : " They say there is no
mosque anywhere larger than this. The length of the Haram
Area from east to west is 752 ells of the Dhira/ al Malikiyyah.
Its breadth from the Kiblah (south) to the north is 435 ells."
(I. B.,i. 121.)
The author of the Muthtr a I Ghiram is the first writer to
mention that the tablet in the north wall, which he read, was, in
his day, rendered somewhat illegible by the weathering of the
stone. This was in 1351, a few years prior to Ibn Batutah 's visit.
As will be noted, the words recording both the length and the
breadth were, in 1351, clearly legible, and it was only the speci-
fication of the ell that he could not decipher. The following
passage from the author of the Muthir has been quoted or copied
JERUSALEM. 195
by many subsequent writers, notably by Suyuti in 1470, and by
Mujir ad Din in 1496. The Arabic text (collated from several
MSS in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris) is printed in the
J. R. A. S., vol. xix., new series, at p. 305. The following is a
translation :
"It is stated by Ibn 'Asakir (died 1176) that the length of the
Haram Area is 755 ells, and its breadth 465 ells, the ell being the
royal ell (DhircC al Malik). And so also writes Abu'l Ma'ali al
Musharraf in his. book. Now, I myself, in old times, have seen
in the northern wall of the Haram Area, above the gateway which
adjoins the Duwaidariyyah, and on the inner side of the wall, a
slab on which was inscribed the length and the breadth of the
Haram Area, and it differed from what these two authorities have
stated. And what was inscribed on this slab was : Length 784 efts,
breadth 455 ells. The inscription, further, gives the indication of
the ell used ; but I am not sure whether this is the ell mentioned
above (which is the royal ell) or some other, for the inscription
has become indistinct. The Haram Area was measured in our
days with a rope, and along the eastern wall it measured 683 ells,
and along the western wall it measured 650 ells, while in the
breadth (that is, along the northern and the southern walls) it
measured 438 ells. These measurements being exclusive of the
width of the outer walls."
It is to be noted that the author of the Muthir fails to state
what particular ell was the one used in the measurements made in
his days.
Mujir ad Din, who quotes the above (M. a. D., 251), states in a
subsequent page (Cairo Text, p. 377) that he, himself, in the year
1496, measured the Haram Area twice over to get the figures
r\act. The ell was the workman's ell, that commonly in use in
his day, the length of which is equivalent to about 2\ feet.
Mujir ad Din's measurements are the following:
" Length : From the South Wall at the Mihrab Daud, to the
back of the colonnade on the North Wall near the Gate of the
Tribes, is 660 ells. This is not counting the width of the outer
walls. Width : From the Eastern Wall, where this overhangs the
tombs that are outside the Gate of Mercy, to the back of the
132
196 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Western Colonnade below the Chambers of the Madrasah Tan-
kiziyyah, is 406 ells."
At the valuation given above, 660 workman's ells would equal
1,485 feet, and 406 ells, 913! feet.
The following list gives in chronological order a summary of
the above measurements. When it is remembered that since
Muslim days the South Wall of the Aksa Mosque (and therefore
also of the Haram Area) has always occupied the position it does
at the present day ; that the same may be said of the " Cradle of
Jesus " in the south-east corner ; that Mukaddasi as early as 985
mentions the Birkat Bani Israil, and therefore that the north-east
angle cannot have changed its position since the ninth century ;
and finally, that the Gates in the West Wall, many of them date
from the first centuries of the Hijrah--it must be concluded that
the boundaries of the Haram Area cannot have been much
changed since the days of the Khalif 'Abd al Malik at the close
of the seventh century of our era. The variation in the figures is
doubtless in part due to the error of the copyists ; in part also to
the variety of ell used, which ranged between the early Hashimite
royal ell of ij feet, the later royal ell of about 2 feet, and the
workman's ell of the fifteenth century, which measured about
2\ feet.
A.D. 903. Ibn al Fakih, in ells, 1,000 by 700.
913. Ibn 'Abd Rabbih, "in Imam ells," 784 by 455.
985. Mukaddasi, " in royal Hashimite ells," 1,000 by 700,
equivalent to 1,500 feet by 1,050 feet.
1047. Nasir-i-Khusrau. Inscription on North Wall, "in royal
ells," read 704 by 455.
1154. Idrisi, measurement in Ba' (fathom), 200 by 180, equiva-
lent to 1,200 feet by 1,080 feet.
1178. 'AH of Herat. Inscription on North Wall, "in royal
ells," 700 by 455.
1176. Ibn 'Asakir, as quoted by the author of the MutJv.r^ "in
royal ells," 755 by 465.
1351. The author of the Muthir al Ghiram. Inscription
(query what ells), 784 by 455.
Idem, by his own measurement : Eastern Wall, 683 ells ;
JERUSALEM. 197
Western Wall, 650 ells ; breadth, 438 ells. (Specification of ell
not given.)
1355. Ibn Batutah, "in royal ells," 752 by 435. (Length and
breadth interchanged in error.)
1496. Mujir ad Din, from his own measurements, in workman's
ells (of about 2\ feet), 660 by 406 (equivalent to 1,485 feet and
9'3i f eet).
1874. M. Clermont Ganneau's reading of the inscription in the
North Wall, length, 784 or 734; breadth, 455. This in ells that,
according to his reading, cannot have been royal ells.
THE TANKS AND POOLS.
The rock under the greater part of the Haram Area is, in
various places, honeycombed with tanks used for storing water.
They arc mentioned by many of the earlier writers. These
reservoirs during the Middle Ages were fed by an aqueduct,
bringing water from " Solomon's Pools '' in the Wadi Urtas, near
Hebron, which aqueduct was originally constructed by Pontius
Pilate (Josephus, Ant., xviii. 3, 2). Of the water-cisterns of the
Noble Sanctuary, Nasir gives the following account :
"The roofs of all the buildings in the Haram Area are covered
with lead. Below the ground-level are numerous tanks and water-
cisterns hewn out of the rock, for the Noble Sanctuary rests every-
where on a foundation of live rock. There are so many of these
cisterns that however much rain falls, no water flows away to
waste, but all is caught in the tanks, whence the people come to
draw it. They have constructed leaden conduits for carrying
down the water, and the rock cisterns lie below these, with covered
passages leading down thereto, through which the conduits pass to
the tanks, whereby any loss of water is saved, and impurities are
kept therefrom.
" At a distance of three leagues from the Holy City, I saw a great
water-tank (at Solomon's Pools), whereinto pour all the streams
that flow down from the hills. From thence they have brought
an aqueduct that comes out into the Noble Sanctuary. Of all
parts of the Holy City this is where water is most plentiful. But
in every house also, there is a cistern for collecting the rain-water
198 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
for other than this water there is none and each must store the
rain which falls upon his roof. The water used in the hot baths
and other places is solely from the storage of the rains. The
tanks that are below the Haram Area never need to be repaired,
for they are cut in the live rock. Any place where there may
have been originally a fissure or a leakage, has been so solidly
built up that the tanks never fall out of order. It is said that
these cisterns were constructed by Solomon peace be upon him !
The roofing of them is like that of a baker's oven (tann&r). Each
opening is covered with a stone, as at a well-mouth, in order that
nothing may fall therein. The water of the Holy City is sweeter
than the water of any other place, and purer; and even when no
rain falls for two or three days the conduits still run with water,
for though the sky be clear, and there be no trace of clouds, the
dew causes drops to fall."* (N. Kh., 39.)
The great cistern, which is in part excavated under the Aksa
Mosque, goes by the name of Bir al Warakah, the Well of the
Leaf. To account for the name, a strange tradition is recounted
(1470) by Suyuti, and copied by Mujir ad Din, and many later
writers, which in substance reproduces the account given by Yakut
(1225) in his Geographical Dictionary under the heading of Al
Kalt. Yakut's version will be found translated in chapter vii.,f
and may be compared with what is given here from Suyuti.
"Now as to the tradition about the leaves (of Paradise), there
are many and various accounts thereof. In the first place, from
Abu Bakr ibn Abi Maryam, through 'Utayyah ibn Kais, comes the
tradition that the Prophet said: 'Verily a man from among my
people shall enter Paradise, walking upon his two feet (and come
back again), and yet shall live.' Now during the Khalifate of
'Omar, a caravan of men arrived at the Holy City to make their
prayers there. And one of them, a man of the Bani Tamim,
named Shuraik ibn Habashah, went off to get water (from the well).
And his bucket falling down into the well, he descended and found
a door there opening into gardens, and passing through the door
into the gardens, he walked therein. Then he plucked a leaf from
one of the trees, and placing it behind his ear, he returned to the
* See p. 87, note. t See p. 292.
JERUSALEM. 199
well and mounted up again. And the man went to the Governor
of the Holy City, and related to him of what he had seen in those
gardens, and how he had come to enter therein. Then the Governor
sent men with him to the well, and they descended, many people
accompanying them, but they found not the door, neither did they
attain to the gardens. And the Governor wrote to the Khalif
'Omar concerning it all, recalling how it was reported on tradition
that one of the people of Islam should enter the Garden of Paradise,
and walk therein, on his two feet, and yet live. 'Omar wrote in
answer : ' Look ye to the leaf, whether it be green and do not
wither. If this be so, verily it is a leaf of Paradise, for naught of
Paradise can wither or change ; and it is recorded in the aforesaid
tradition of the Prophet that the leaf shall not suffer change.'
" Another version of the tradition runs as follows : Shuraik ibn
Habashah at Tamimi came into the Holy City to get water for
his companions, and his bucket slipped from his hand, so he
descended (into the well) to fetch it up. And a person called to
him in the well, saying, * Come thou with me,' and, taking him by
the hand, he brought him into the Garden of Paradise. Shuraik
plucked two leaves, and the person then brought him back
to where he had first found him. Then Shuraik mounted up out
of the well, and when he rejoined his companions, he told them
of all that had happened. The affair reached the ears of the
Khalif 'Omar, and it was Ka'ab who remarked how it had
been said (by the Prophet) a man of this people of Islam shall
enter the Garden of Paradise, and yet lire, adding : ' Look ye
to the leaves ; if they suffer change, then are they not the leaves
of Paradise, and if they change not, then must they verily be of the
leaves of Paradise.' And 'Utayyah asserts that the said leaves
never after did suffer change. According to another tradition
(coming from Al Walid), a certain Abu-n-Najm was Imam (leader
of prayer) to the people of Salamiyyah, many of whom were of the
desert tribes. And some of these people told him how they had
themselves been well acquainted with Shuraik ibn Habashah
when he was living at Salamiyyah. And they were wont to inquire
of him concerning his entrance into the Garden of Paradise, and
what he saw therein, and of how he had brought leaves there-
200 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
from. And these people continued : ' We inquired further
whether there yet remained by him any one of the leaves which he
had plucked there ; and when he answered us affirmatively, we
asked to see the leaf, and the man called for his Kuran, and took
from between its pages a leaf that was entirely green, and gave it
into our hands. When we had returned it to him, after laying it
over his eyes, he placed it back again between the pages of
his Kuran. And when he was at the point of death, he enjoined
that we should put this leaf on his breast under the shroud, and his
last words were to conjure us that this should exactly be done.'
Al Walid continues : I inquired of Abu-n-Najm whether he had
heard a description given of the leaf? He replied : ' Yes ; and it
was like the leaf of a peach-tree (Dur&kin\ of the size of the
palm of a hand, and pointed at the tip.' Suyuti adds : Now the
mouth of the Well of the Leaf is in the Aksa Mosque, on the left
hand as you enter by the door facing the Mihrab." (S., 270. The
first tradition is copied by M. a. D., 368.)
Besides the underground water-tanks of the Haram, there were
three celebrated pools of water in the Holy City. Mukaddasi,
in 985, writes : " There is water in Jerusalem in plenty. Thus it
is a common saying, that there is no place in Jerusalem but where
you may get water and hear the Call to Prayer ; and few are the
houses that have not cisterns one or more. Within the city are
three great tanks, namely, the Birkat Bani Israil, the Birkat
Sulaiman, and the Birkat Tyad. In the vicinity of each of these
are baths, and to them lead the water-channels from the streets.
In the Mosque Area there are twenty underground cisterns of
vast size, and there are few quarters of the city that have not
public cisterns, though the contents of these last is only the rain-
water that drains into them from the streets. At a certain valley,
about a stage from the Holy City, they have gathered together
the waters, and made there two pools, into which the torrents of
the winter rains flow. From these two reservoirs there are
channels, bringing the water to the City, which are opened during
the spring in order to fill the tanks under the Haram Area, and
also those in other places." (Muk., 167.)
The notice of these three pools, mentioned by Mukaddasi
JERUSALEM. 201
as within the city precincts, is copied by succeeding writers, who
make no attempt at any identification of the two last mentioned.
The first, the Pool of the Children of Israel, is the well-known
tank called by the same name at the present day, which lies outside
the north-east corner of the Haram Area. (See plans facing pp.
150, 172.) The traditional origin of its name is thus recorded by
'Ali of Herat :
" The Birkat Bani Israil is to the north of the Haram Area.
They say that Bukht Nasar (Nebuchadnezzar) filled it with the
heads of the Children of Israel that he slew." (A. H., Oxf.
MS., f. 39 v.)
The Birkat Sulaiman and the Birkat 'lyad do not exist under
these names at the present day. The Birkat Sulaiman is, doubt-
less, the mediaeval Pool of Bethesda, the site of which has recently
been discovered (see P. E. F. " Quarterly Statement," 1888, p. 115)
near the Church of St. Anne.* Tradition ascribed the digging of
both this pool and the Birkat Bani. Israil to King Solomon. (See
P. P. T. Bordeaux Pilgrim, p. 20, and Citcz de Jherusalem, p. 25 )
The Birkat 'lyad was called after 'lyad ibn Ghanm, a celebrated
( 'ompanion of the Prophet, who was with the Khalif 'Omar at the
capitulation of Jerusalem, and, according to Mujir ad Din
(M. a. D., 231), built a bath in the Holy City. He diedA.H. 20
(641). The pool anciently called by his name is probably the
present Birkat Hammam al Butrak, the Pool of the Patriarch's Bath,
not far from the Jaffa Gate, very generally identified with the Pool
Amygdalon of Josephus and with the Biblical Pool of Hezekiah.
Suyuti, in 1470, whose account is copied by Mujir ad Din
(M. a. D., 4091 writes as follows : "In regard to the pools that
are in the Holy City, on the report of Damrah from Ibn Abi
Siulah, it is related that a certain King of the Kings of the
Children of Israel, named Hazkil (Hezekiah), constructed six
pools for the Holy City, namely, three within the city, which are
the Birkat Bani Israil, the Birkat Sulaiman, and the Birkat 'lyad,
and three without the city, which are the Birkat Manilla and the
two Birkats of Al Marji'. And these he made to store the water
for the use of the people of the Holy City." (S., 274.)
* See the Plan of Jerusalem facing p. 83.
202 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
With regard to the pools outside the city here alluded to, the
Pool of Mamilla lies a short distance west of the Jaffa Gate of
Jerusalem, while the Pools of Al Marji' are those known as
Solomon's Pools, some miles from Hebron, referred to above
in the descriptions of Mukaddasi and others. (See p. 197.)
Mujir ad Din, writing in 1496, adds that in his days the two
Birkats of Tyad and Sulaiman could no longer be identified, the
names being unknown to the inhabitants of Jerusalem. (M. a. T).,
409.)
THE CHURCH OF Rp;SURRECTION AND OTHER CHRISTIAN
SHRINES.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, In their descriptions of
Jerusalem, Muslim writers very naturally give but scant space to
the mention of Christian edifices. The great Church of the
Resurrection, however, founded by Constantine about the year
335, ruined by the Persian Chosroes in 614, and restored by
Modestus in 629, had been left untouched when, in 637, 'Omar
took possession of Jerusalem ; and, as has been noted on a
previous page, was, in Mukaddasi's days, " so enchantingly fair,
and so renowned for its splendour," as almost to rival in beauty
the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque at Damascus.
(Seep. 117.)
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is mentioned as early as
the year 943 A.D. by the historian Mas'udi. The Muslims, from
the earliest times, have called this church Kanisah at Kumamah
" the Church of the Sweepings," or " of the Dunghill "-
Kumamah being a designed corruption of Ka\amah, the name
given to the church by the Eastern Christians, this being the
Arabic equivalent of Anastasis "the Resurrection." The im-
posture, which is still called the Miracle of the Holy Fire, is first
noticed by the Christian pilgrim, Bernard the Wise, in 867.
Mas'udi's testimony, therefore, some eighty years later, that the
miracle took place in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre of the
Christians, a well-known building, perfectly distinct from the
Dome of the Rock (which last Mr. Fergusson would have us
believe was, at that period, known as the Holy Sepul.hre], serves
JERUSALEM. 203
to overturn from its foundations the theory that Constantino's
basilica is the Muslim Dome of the Rock. Mas'udi was sceptical
as to the miraculous origin of the fire. His account is as
follows :
" On the fifth day of the (Syrian) month Tishrin i (October), is
the festival of the Kanisah al Kumamah (the Church of the
Sepulchre) at Jerusalem. The Christians assemble for this festival
from out all lands. For on it the fire from heaven doth descend
among them, and they kindle therefrom the candles. The
Muslims also are wont to assemble in great crowds to see the
sight of the festival. It is the custom at this time to pluck olive-
leaves. The Christians hold many legends there anent ; but
the fire is produced by a clever artifice, which is kept a great
secret." (Mas., iii. 405.)
Another passage from the same author is curious as showing
what were the churches in the hands of the Christians in
Jerusalem in A.D. 943. After relating the history of the reign of
Solomon, Mas'udi concludes his chapter with the following
paragraph :
" It was Solomon who first built the Holy House, which same
is now the Aksa Mosque may Allah bless its precincts ! When
he had completed the building thereof, he set about building a
house for his own use. This last is the place that, in our own
day, is called the Kanisah al Kumamah (the Church of the
Resurrection). It is the largest church in Jerusalem belonging
to the Christians. They have also in the Holy City other greatly
honoured churches besides this one as, for example, the Kanisah
Sihyun (the Church of Sion), of which David has made mention
(in the Psalms) : and the church known as Al Jismaniyyah. This
last, they say, encloses the tomb of David." (Mas., i. i n.)
Al Jismaniyyah is the Arabic corruption of the name Geth-
semane. The original Hebrew name has the meaning of Garden
of the Clire-prcss ; while Jismaniyyah, in Arabic, signifies " The
place of the Incarnation" and is in allusion, therefore, to a
different circumstance in the Gospel history. Mukaddasi, writing
in 985, gives no description of the Church of the Sepulchre, only
alluding to it incidentally. (See pp. 98, 117.)
204 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
There is some doubt as to the exact year in which the mad
Khalif of Egypt, Hakim, ordered the celebrated destruction of
the Church of the Sepulchre. Western authorities generally place
this event in the year 1010 A.D. The chronicle of Ibn al Athir
notes it as an occurrence of the year of the Hijrah 398 (1008).
He writes : " In this year Al Hakim-bi-amr-Illah, the Lord of
Egypt, ordered the demolition of the Church of the Kumamah,
which is the church in the Holy City (of Jerusalem) called
generally by the (Christians) Al Kayamah (the Anastasis). In
this church, according to the belief of the Christians, is the spot
where the Messiah was buried ; and on this account it is visited
by them, coming in pilgrimage from all parts of the earth. Al
Hakim also commanded the other churches throughout his
dominions to be likewise pulled down, and so it was done." (Ibn
al Athir, ix. 147.)
Makrizi, however, an authority of no less weight than the above,
states that it was in the year 400 A.M. (1010) that Al Hakim
" wrote ordering the destruction of the Church of the Kumamah,"
(the text is given in De Sacy's Chrestomathie Arabe, vol. i., p. 60
of the Arabic), and this corresponds with the date generally given
by Western writers. Mujir ad Din, on the contrary, repeats Ibn al
Athir's date. He writes: "During the year 398 (1008), the
Khalif Hakim ordered the Kumamah to be destroyed. The
church, however, was allowed to be rebuilt during the reign of his
son, Al Mustansir, by the King of Rum." (M. a. D., 269.) The
King of Rum here mentioned is, according to one account, the
Emperor Constantine Monomachus, who, about the year 1048,
had the church rebuilt under the superintendence of the Patriarch
Nicephorus. Other accounts state that the restoration took place
under the P^mperor Michael IV., the Paphlagonian, who obtained
the privilege of Al Mustansir on the condition of setting free five
thousand Muslim captives.
In the year 1047, Jerusalem was visited by the Persian pilgrim
Nasir-i-Khusrau, who has left the following description of the
great church as it stood before the alterations effected by the
Crusaders. Nasir writes :
"In the Holy City (of Jerusalem), the Christians possess a
JERUSALEM. 205
church which they call Bai'at-al-Kumamah (which is the Church
of the Resurrection), and they hold it in high veneration. Every
year great multitudes of people from Rum (the Greek Empire)
come hither to perform their visitation ; and the Emperor of
Byzantium himself even comes here, but privily, so that no one
should recognise him. In the days when (the Fatimite Khalif)
Al Hakim-bi-amr-Illah was ruler of Egypt, the Greek Caesar had
come after this manner to Jerusalem. Al Hakim, having news of
it, sent for one of his cup-bearers, and said to him, ' There is a
man of so and such a countenance and condition whom thou
wilt find seated in the Mosque (Jami') of the Holy City ; go thou,
therefore, and approach him, and say that Hakim hath sent thee
to him, lest he should think that I, Hakim, knew not of his
coming ; but let him be of good cheer, for I have no evil intention
against him.' Hakim at one time ordered the Church (of the
Resurrection) to be given over to plunder, which was so done,
and it was laid in ruins. Some time it remained thus ; but after-
wards the Caesar of Byzantium sent ambassadors with presents
and promises of service, and concluded a treaty in which he
stipulated for permission to defray the expenses of rebuilding the
church, and this was ultimately accomplished.
" At the present day the church is a most spacious building, and
is capable of containing eight thousand persons. The edifice is
built, with the utmost skill, of coloured marbles, with ornamenta-
tion and sculptures. Inside, the church is everywhere adorned
with Byzantine brocade, worked in gold with pictures. And they
have portrayed Jesus peace be upon Him ! who at times is
shown riding upon an ass. There are also pictures representing
others of the Prophets, as, for instance, Abraham, and Ishmael,
and Isaac, and Jacob with his sons peace be upon them all !
These pictures they have overlaid with a varnish of the oil of
Sandaracha (Sandariis, or red juniper) ; and for the face of
each portrait they have made a plate of thin glass, which is set
thereon, and is perfectly transparent. This dispenses with the
need of a curtain, and prevents any dust or dirt from settling
on the painting, for the glass is cleaned daily by the servants
(of the church). Besides this (Church of the Resurrection)
206 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
there are many others (in Jerusalem), all very skilfully built ; but
to describe them all would lead into too great length. In the Church
(of the Resurrection) there is a picture divided into two parts,
representing Heaven and Hell. One part shows the people
of paradise in Paradise, while the other shows the people of hell
in Hell, with all that therein is ; and assuredly there is nowhere
else in the world a picture such as this. There are seated in this
church great numbers of priests and monks, who read the Evangel
and say prayers, for both by day and by night they are occupied
after this manner." (N. Kh., 59-61.)
In 1099 the Crusaders gained possession of Jerusalem, and
deeming the old Church of the Resurrection to be too insignifi-
cant a building for the great purpose of the Shrine of Crrist's
Tomb, they enlarged the edifice by adding a nave and aisles
to the then existing rotunda. These additions were apparently
completed in the first half of the twelfth century. In 1154
Idrisi, quoting, doubtless, from the accounts brought home to
Sicily by Christian pilgrims, wrote the following description of the
church as it then existed :
" When you enter (Jerusalem) by the Jaffa Gate, called Bab al
Mihrab, which, as aforesaid, is the western gate, you go eastwards
through a street that leads to the great church known as the
Kanisah al Kayamah (the Church of the Resurrection), which
the Muslims call Kumamah (the Dunghill). This is a church to
which pilgrimage is made from all parts of the Greek Empire,
both from the eastern lands and the western. You enter (the
church) by a gate at the west end, and the interior thereof
occupies the centre space under a dome, which covers the whole of
the church. This is one of the wonders of the world. The church
itself lies lower than this gate, and you cannot descend thereto
from this side. Another gate opens on the north side, and
through this you may descend to the lower part of the church by
thirty steps. This gate is called Bab Santa Maria.
" When you have descended ir to the interior of the church you
come on the most venerated Holy Sepulchre. It has two gates,
and above it is a vaulted dome of very solid construction, beauti-
fully built, and splendidly ornamented. Of these two gates, one
JERUSALEM. 207
is towards the north, facing the Gate Santa Maria, and the other is
toward the south, facing which is the Bab as Salubiyyah (the Gate
of the Crucifixion). Above this last gate is the bell-tower of the
church. Over against this, on the east, is a great and venerable
church, where the Franks of Rum (which is the Greek Empire)
have their worship and services. To the east (again) of this
blessed church, but bearing somewhat to the south, is the prison
in which the Lord Messiah was incarcerated : also the place of the
Crucifixion. Now, as to the great dome (over the Church of the
Resurrection), it is of a vast size, and open to the sky. Inside the
dome, and all round it, are painted pictures of the Prophets, and
of the Lord Messiah, and of the Lady Maryam, his Mother, and
of John the Baptist. Over the Holy Sepulchre lamps are
suspended, and above the Place (of the Grave) in particular
are three lamps of gold." (Id., 6.)
The mention of the bell-tower, called in the Arabic Kanbindr
(Campanarium), would go to prove the tower of the Church of
the Resurrection to be older than M. de Vogue supposes, judging
it on architectural grounds only, in his E&lises de la Terre Sciinte
(p. 207). The great south portal of the church, the only one
at present in use, and immediately to the north of which stands
the bell -tower, is the one doubtless here called the Gate of the
Crucifixion. It is noteworthy that in Idrisi's days the church had
three entrances, the above-mentioned gate to the south ; one
opposite, opening north (the Gate of Santa Maria) ; and, lastly,
the West Gate, from which you could not descend into the body
of the edifice. The two latter gates no longer exist. The
" Church of the Greeks " must be the present Catholicon, lying
immediately east of the Rotunda of the Sepulchre, and to the
present day belonging to the Greek community. It forms the
western half of the Church of the Crusaders.
Some years later than Idrisi, 'Ali of Herat, in 1173, wrote a
description of the Holy Places of Palestine, from the purely
Muslim point of view. Of the Church of the Resurrection he gives
the following short notice, written a few years before Saladin's
recovery of the Holy City :
" The Church of the Kumamah is one of the most wonderful
208 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
buildings of the world. In it is the tomb which the Christians
call Al Kayamah (Anastasis), and this because they believe that
the Resurrection of the Messiah took place here. But the truth is
that the place is called Al Kumamah (the Dunghill) because it was
of old a dung-heap, and lay outside the city, being the place
where they cut off the hands of malefactors and crucified thieves,
as, too, is mentioned in the Evangel but Allah alone knows the
truth. The Christians have in this place the rock which they say
was split, and from beneath which Adam rose up because it
stood under the place of the Crucifixion, as they relate.* They
have also here the Garden of Joseph, surnamed As Siddik (the
Truthful), which is much visited by pilgrims. In this church
takes place the descent of the (Holy) Fire. Now, verily, I myself
did sojourn at Jerusalem for some season during the days of the
Franks, in order to understand their ways and the manner of the
sciences." (A. H., Oxf. MS., f. 41, recto and verso.)
In 1187 Saladin expelled the Crusaders from the Holy City, and,
according to some accounts, pillaged and did considerable damage
to the Church of the Resurrection. In 1192 the knights of the
Third Crusade were allowed by Saladin to visit the Holy Sepulchre,
and the Bishop of Salisbury obtained permission for two Latin
monks to remain there and conduct the services of the church.
The account which Yakut, writing in 1225, gives of the church
proves that in his day the building had recovered from the
reported pillage at the date of Saladin's conquest. Yakut, as will
be seen, repeats the account given by 'AH of Herat ; he, however,
adds some remarks of his own, and gives a curious notice of the
Miracle of the Holy Fire :
"The Kumamah is the great church of the Christians at
Jerusalem. It is beyond description for beauty, and for its great
riches and wonderful architecture. It stands in the middle of the
city, and a wall surrounds it. There is here the tomb which the
Christians call Al Kayamah (the Anastasis), because of their
belief that the Resurrection of the Messiah took place here. In
* This is the well-known mediaeval legend. See Palestine Pilgrims' Text,
Abbot Daniel, p. 14. The rent in the rock is still shown. According to tradi-
tion, Adam was buried below the rock on which the Crucifixion afterwards
took place.
JERUSALEM. *o 9
point of fact, however, the name is Kumamah, not Kayamah, for
the place was the Dunghill of the inhabitants of the city, and
stood anciently without the town, being the place where they cut
off malefactors' hands, and where they crucified thieves. But
after the Messiah had been crucified on this spot, it came to
be venerated as you now see. This is all related in the Evangel.
There is here a rock which they say was split and Adam rose from
it, for the Crucifixion took place on the summit of the same.
The Christians have also in this spot the Garden of Joseph, the
Truthful peace be upon him ! and visitation is made thereto.
In one part (of the church) is a lamp, on which they say fire
descends from heaven on a certain day and kindles the wick.
"Now, on this matter a certain person who was in the public
service and he was a man of the companions of the Sultan, to
whom it was not possible for the Christians to refuse admittance,
and he had stayed in the church to see how the affair was accom-
plished related to me the following as of his experience: On
one occasion, said he, the descent of the fire was delayed by
the priest, in whose charge it was to see to it, and he turned to
me and said : ' Verily thy attending on us is a matter against the
precept of our law.' I inquired of him wherefore. Said he :
' Because we appear before our companions as doing a thing that
should be kept hid from one like thee. It were therefore to be
desired that thou shouldst leave us and go out.' Said I to him :
' Of necessity will I now see what thou art about to do ; for behold,
I have found in a book of magic what is written therein, how ye
bring a candle near, and then on a sudden hang it up in this place,
which the people neither seeing nor knowing, it is considered by
them a miraculous act, and one deserving of all belief.' Here
ends the account." (Yak., iv. 173-174.)
OTHER CHRISTIAN SHRINES.
It will be convenient at this place to insert such short notices as
are found in the early Muslim writers of the other Christian
shrines which they describe in Jerusalem.
The Garden of Gethsemane, called Al Jismaniyyah in Arabic
(see above, p. 203), is mentioned by Mas'udi as early as the year 943.
14
! r 2io PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Writing in 1154, Idrisi has the following account of the same
spot: "Leaving the (Aksa) Mosque (and crossing the Haram
Area) you come, on the eastern side, to the Bab ar Rahmah (the
Gate of Mercy, the Golden Gate), which is now closed, as we have
said before ; but near to this gate is another, which is open. It is
called Bab al Asbat (the Gate of the Tribes), and through it there
is much coming and going. When you have passed out by the
Gate of the Tribes, you reach the limits of the archery-ground,
and find there a large and very beautiful church, dedicated to the
Lady Mary, and the place is known as Al Jismaniyyah. At this
place also is her tomb, on the skirt of the Mount of Olives (Jabal
az Zaitun). Between it and the Gate of the Tribes is the space of
about a mile." (Id., 8.)
The next mention that occurs of the Tomb of the Virgin is that
given by 'AH of Herat. His work was written in 1173, while the
Crusaders still had possession of Jerusalem ; but the paragraph on
the Tomb of the Virgin would appear to have been altered at a
subsequent date, for it describes the building as it was transformed
after Saladin's rejbonquest of the Holy City in 1187. 'Ali of
Herat writes : " T7he Tomb of Maryam is in the Wadi Jahannum.
You descend (to the tomb) by six-and-thirty steps. There are
here columns of granite and marble. The dome is supported by
sixteen columns, eight being red, and eight green. The building
has four gates, and at each gate are six columns of marble or
granite. It was originally a church, but is now a Mashhad, or
oratory, dedicated to Abraham the Friend peace be on him !
There are here wonderful remains of columns and other archi-
tectural fragments." (A. H., Oxf. MS., f. 40.)
Ibn Batutah, who visited Jerusalem in 1355, speaks in the
following terms of the Tomb of the Virgin, and of some other
Christian shrines in Jerusalem : " At the bottom of the said Valley
of Jahannum is a church which the Christians venerate, for here,
they say, is the Tomb of Maryam peace be on her ! In Jeru-
salem also is another church (namely, that of the Resurrection), to
which the Christians make pilgrimage, and about which they tell
many lies, asserting that the Tomb of Jesus peace be on Him !
is therein. Now, on every pilgrim who makes his visitation to this
JERUSALEM. 211
church a certain tribute is levied for the benefit of the Muslims,
and the Christians have to bear humiliations, which they undergo
with much revolting of the heart. In Jerusalem also is the place
of the Cradle of Jesus peace be on Him ! where Christians
come to seek a blessing." (I. B., i. 124.)
The Church of Pater Noster and Bethany are spoken of by
Idrisi in 1154. He writes: "On the road ascending the Mount
of Olives is a magnificent church, beautifully and solidly built,
which is called the Church of Pater Noster; and on the summit
of the mount is another church, beautiful and grand likewise, in
which men and women incarcerate themselves, seeking thereby to
obtain favour with Allah be He exalted ! In this aforementioned
mount, on the eastern part, and bearing rather to the south, is the
Tomb of Al 'Azar (Lazarus), whom the Lord Messiah raised again
to life. Two miles distant from the Mount of Olives stands the
village from which they brought the she-ass, on which the Lord
Messiah rode on His entry into Jerusalem, but the place is now
in ruins, and no one lives there." (Id., 8.)
The Church of the Ascension (on the Mount of Olives) is
referred to by 'Ali of Herat in 1 173 as " the Church of Salik, which
is the one from which the Messiah is said to have ascended into
heaven." (A.H., Oxf. MS., f. 40.) Ibn Batutah doubtless alludes
to the same building in the Diary of his visit to Jerusalem in 1355,
where he writes : " Beside the Wadi, called Wadi Jahannum, and
to the east of the city on a hill that rises to a certain height (known
as the Mount of Olives), there is a building whence they say Jesus
peace be on Him ! ascended into heaven." (I. B., i. 124.)
'Ali of Herat, in 1173, mentions another church, which it is
difficult at the present day to identify. He writes : "At Jerusalem
is the Church of the Jacobites,* in which is the well where they
say the Messiah washed, and where the Samaritan woman received
belief at His hands. The place is much visited, and is held
in great veneration. At Jerusalem also is the Tower (Burj^
of David and his Mihrab, as is mentioned in the Kuran
(xxxviii. 20)."
* In the Oxford MS., folio 39, v., the name is written ' Kanisah at YughAkiy-
yah, a mistake (by the alteration of the diacritical points) for Al Yugh&biyyak,
which is the reading found in M. Shefer's MS.
142
212 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Of the Church of Sion and the adjacent shrines, Idrisi reports
as follows :
" Now, as to what lies adjacent to the Holy City on the
southern quarter, \vhen you go out by the Bab Sihyun (the Gate
of Sion), you pass a distance of a stone's throw, and come to the
Church of Sion, which is a beautiful church, and fortified. In it
is the guest-chamber wherein the Lord Messiah ate with the
disciples, and the table is there remaining even unto the present
day. The people assemble here (for the Festival of Maundy-)
Thursday. And from the Gate of Sion you descend into a ravine
called Wadi Jahannum (the Valley of Gehenna). On the edge of
this ravine is a church called after the name of Peter, and down
in the ravine is the 'Ain Sulwan (Spring of Siloam), which is the
spring where the Lord Messiah cured the infirmity of the blind
man, who before that had no eyes. Going south from this said
spring is the field (Hakl, Aceldama ?) wherein strangers are buried,
and it is a piece of ground which the Lord bought for this pur-
pose ; and near by to it are many habitations cut out in the rock
wherein men incarcerate themselves for the purposes of devotion."
(Id., 9.)
The table in the Church of Sion is mentioned also by 'Ali of
Herat in 1173, who notices the tradition that it came down from
heaven to Christ and His disciples. (A. H., Oxf. MS., f. 40.)
Yakut (1225) also alludes incidentally to the Church of Sion.
(Yak, iii. 438.)
THE CITY GATES.
The gates in the walls of Jerusalem, though mentioned singly
and incidentally by many geographers, are only fully enumerated
by two Arab authors namely, Mukaddasi in 985, and Mujir ad
Din in 1496. Between these two dates the Holy City was
in turn besieged by the Crusaders and by Saladin, and the walls
were several times dismantled and rebuilt. It is not, therefore,
astonishing to find that Mukaddasi's gates do not all bear the
same names as those found in Mujir ad Din, which last are those
still open and used at the present day. Mukaddasi writes as
follows :
JERUSALEM. 213
"Jerusalem is smaller than Makkah, and larger than Al
Madinah. Over the city is a castle, one side of which is against
the hillside, while the other is defended by a ditch. Jerusalem
has eight iron gates :
" (i) Bab Sihyun (Gate of Sion).
" (a) Bab at Tih (Gate of the Desert of the Wanderings).
" (3) Bab al Balat (Gate of the Palace, or Court).
" (4) Bab Jubb Armiya (Gate of Jeremiah's Pit).
" (5) Bab Silwan (Gate of Siloam).
" (6) Bab Ariha (Gate of Jericho).
" (7) Bab al 'Amud (Gate of the Columns).
" (8) Bab Mihrab Daud (Gate of David's Oratory)." (Muk., 167.)
It is evident, from such of the gates as still bear the same names
as they did in 985, that Mukaddasi follows no order, but that the
names as they at present stand in the MSS. are set down almost
entirely at haphazard. To begin, however, with those about
which there can be little dispute.*
The Gate of David's Mihrab (8) is that generally known as the
Jaffa or Hebron Gate, called at the present day Bab al Khalil.
Immediately above it is the castle mentioned by Mukaddasi, which
still exists, and in which is the Mihrab which gave this gate its
name. David's Mihrab is also shown in the Haram Area. (See
p. 1 68.) The oratory in the castle, however, is the one referred
to by Istakhri and Ibn Haukal in the following description :
" In the city is the Mihrab of the prophet David, a tall edifice
built of stone, which, by measurement and calculation, I should
say reached a height of 50 ells, and was 30 ells in the breadth.
On its summit is a building like a cell, which is the Mihrab men-
tioned by Allah may He be exalted ! (in the words of the
Kuran : ' Hath the story of the two pleaders reached thee, when
they mounted the walls of David's Mihrab ?') When you come
up to the Holy City from Ar Ramlah this is the first building that
catches the eye, and you see it above the other houses of the
town. In the Noble Sanctuary, too, are many other venerated
Mihrabs dedicated to other of the celebrated prophets." (Is.,
56; I. H., in.)
* See the plan of Jerusalem facing p. 83.
2i 4 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
The Sion Gate (i) is the next south of the Hebron Gate, and
is now known as Bab an Nabi Daud (the Gate of the Prophet
David). The Gate of Jericho (6) is that which the Christians,
for the last five centuries, have called St. Stephen's Gate. The
Gate of Jeremiah's Pit (4) can, from the position of the grotto (or
pit), only be the small gate to the north, called at the present day
Bab as Sahirah, and in old days known as Herod's Gate. The
Gate of the Columns (7) is that more generally known as the
Damascus Gate, though it still bears the older name. In the
times of the Crusaders this was what was known as St. Stephen's
Gate, a name in later times transferred to the Jericho Gate.
The remaining of Mukaddasi's gates can only be approximately
identified. The Gate of the Desert of the Wanderings (2) is
probably the "Secret Gate" mentioned by Mujir ad Din as
opening near the Armenian Convent between the Hebron and
Sion Gates. The Siloam Gate (5) can hardly, from its name, be
other than the southern gate, called the Bab al Magharibah (Gate
of the Mogrebins, or Western Africans), which the Franks have
named the Dung Gate. Bab al Balat (the Gate of the Palace, or
Court) (3) is, most probably, identical with Mujir ad Din's Bab ar
Rahbah (the Gate of the Public Square), opening west in the city
wall, and north of the Hebron Gate. In the Citez de Jherusalem,
written about the year 1225, the gate which opened here is named
the St. Lazarus Postern. Since Mujir ad Din's days it has been
built up.
Idrisi, writing in 1154, notes the following city gates :
" Bab al Mihrab (Jaffa Gate) is on the western side ; and this
is the gate over which is the Cupola of David (Kubbat Daud)
peace be upon him ! Bab ar Rahmah (the Golden Gate) is on
the eastern side of the^city. It is closed, and is only opened at
the Feast of Olive-branches (Palm Sunday). Bab Sihyun (the
Sion Gate) is on the south of the city. Bab 'Amud al Ghurab
(the Gate of the Crow's Pillar the Damascus Gate) lies to the
north of the city." (Id., 5.)
The Damascus Gate was called " of the Pillar " on account of
certain ancient columns that had been built into it ; but what the
" Crow " may refer to is not known. Idrisi is the only author to
JERUSALEM. 215
mention this name. It will be noted that the Golden Gate, Bab
ar Rahmah (Gate of Mercy), is here mentioned as a city gate.
During the time of the Crusaders there was apparently a right-of-
way across the Haram Area from the Porta Speciosa (Bab Daud,
or Bab as Silsilah) in the west wall of the Noble Sanctuary to the
Golden Gate on the east. In Muslim times this was never
allowed.
Writing in 1496, Mujir ad Din enumerates the following city
gates, ten in number :
"On the south side are two gates: (i) Bab Harah al
Magharibah," the Gate of the Mogribins' Quarter the Prankish
Dung Gate. "(2) Bab Sihyun (of Sion), now known as the Bab
Harah al Yahiid that is, of the Jews' Quarter." The Jews'
Quarter in Crusading times was in the north-east part of the city.
From Saladin's time down to the present day it has been in the
quarter mentioned by Mujir ad Din to the south.
" On the west side are three gates : (3) The small Secret Gate
near the Armenian Convent." This is probably identical with
Mukaddasi's Gate of the Desert of the Wanderings. It is at
present walled up. " (4) Bab al Mihrab, now called Bab al
Khalil," the Gate of the Friend ; i.e., Abraham the Hebron or
Jaffa Gate. "(5) Bab ar Rahbah," the Gate of the Public Square;
probably that mentioned by Mukaddasi as the Bab al Balat, and
identical with the St. Lazarus Postern. It is now closed.
"On the north side are four gates : (6) Bab Dair as Sarb," the
Gate of the Servian Convent. The exact position of this is un-
known, but it must have stood between the Rahbah Gate and the
Damascus Gate. Mujir ad Din, speaking of the street called
Khatt ad Dargah, writes : " It has in it Saladin's Bimaristan (or
hospital), and the Church of the Kumamah (of the Resurrection).
On its west side is the Quarter of the Christians, which extends
from south to north, from the Bab al Khalil to the Bab as Sarb,
and includes the Harah ar Rahbah, the Quarter of the Square."
"(7) Bab al 'Amud," Gate of the Columns, the Damascus
Gate, anciently the St. Stephen's Gate. "(8) Bab ad Da'iyah
(Gate of the Conduit ?), by which you enter the Quarter of the
Bani Zaid." This gate is no longer open, nor is its exact position
216 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
known, but it must have stood somewhat to the west of the so-
called Herod's Gate. "(9) Bab as Sahirah," the Gate of the
Plain Herod's Gate.*
" On the east one gate : (10) Bab al Asbat," Gate of the Tribes
the present St. Stephen's or Jericho Gate.
Mujir ad Din adds : " Besides these ten gates, there was
anciently a gate near the Zawiyah (or Shrine), called after Ibn ash
Shaikh 'Abd 'Allah, over against the citadel (Kala'ah). And again
a gate in the quarter called Harah at Turiyyah, which led to
the Maidan of the Slaves (Mai din al 'Abid), outside the Bab al
Asbat. This gate is now closed." (M. a. D., 406.) Mujir ad Din
tells us " that the Harah at Turiyyah (the quarter of the inhabitants
of Tur, or Sinai) went from the Gate of the Tribes (Bab al
Asbat) up to the north wall of the city;" that is, it occupied all the
north-east quarter of the city. But there is no such gate as that
mentioned, open at the present day in the walls here.
The table on the next page shows the names of the City Gates
at various epochs, beginning at the Jaffa Gate and going north-
ward, and so round the walls back to the point of departure :
* No native authority (as far as I am aware) exists for spelling the name
of this gate, B&b ez Za/iary, " The Flowery Gate," as Robinson (Researches,
2nd edit., i. 262), and many after him, have done. Neither is the name
ever written Bab ez Zahriye, " Gate of Splendour," as has been set down in
some of the Memoirs of the Palestine Exploration Fund. However the
present inhabitants of Jerusalem may spell and pronounce the name of this
small gate, which the Franks call " Herod's Gate," in old times it always was
written As Sahirah, that is, " of the Plain," scilicet, " of the Assembly of the
Judgment Day," which stretches bryond the city wall north-east from this
Gate. See p. 218.
JERUSALEM.
217
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218 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
THE KEDRON VALLEY, OR THE WADI JAHANNUM, AND THE
PLAIN OF THE SAHIRAH.
The valley called by the Jews Ge-Ben-Hinnon that is, of
Gehenna was the deep gorge to the west and south-west of
Jerusalem ; the Muslims, however, in adopting the Jewish name,
chose the gorge bounding the Holy City on the east as the valley
which they called Wadi Jahannum. This, in earlier days, had been
known as the Valley of the Kedron, or of Jehoshaphat. In the
Prophet Joel (iii. 2) the verse occurs: "I will also gather all
nations, and will bring them down into the Valley of Jehoshaphat,
and will plead with them there for My people, and for My heritage
Israel." This had led the Jews to make the Valley of Jehoshaphat
the scene of the Last Judgment, and the Muslims, in adopting the
Hebrew tradition, and transferring it to their Wadi Jahannum, had
considerably amplified the story. According to these last, the
Bridge As Sirat, dividing heaven and hell, is to stretch across
this valley from the hill of the Haram Area to the Mount of
Olives, while the Plain (As Sahirah), on the northern part of the
mount, is to be the gathering-place of all mankind on the Last
Day. The name of As Sahirah appears in later times to have been
extended also to the plain on the city side, or west of the Kedron
Valley, and therefore immediately to the north of Jerusalem, and
from it one of the city gates, Bab as Sahirah, took its name,
presumably at a period subsequent to Saladin's reconquest of the
Holy City. Describing all these localities in 985, Mukaddasi
writes as follows :
"Jabal Zaita (the Mount of Olives) overlooks the Great
Mosque from the eastern side of the Wadi (Jahannum). On
its summit is a mosque built in memory of 'Omar, who sojourned
here some days when he came to receive the capitulation of the
Holy City. There is also a church built on the spot whence
Christ ascended into heaven ; and further, near by is the place
called As Sahirah (the Plain), which, as I have been informed on
the authority of (the traditionist) Ibn 'Abbas, will be the scene of
the resurrection. The ground is white, and blood has never been
spilt here. Now, the Wadi Jahannum runs from the south-east angle
JERUSALEM. 219
of the Harani Area to the furthest (northern) point (of the city),
and along the east side. In this valley there are gardens and vine-
yards, churches, caverns and cells of anchorites, tombs, and other
remarkable spots, also cultivated fields. In its midst stands the
church which covers the Sepulchre of Mary, and above, overlook-
ing the valley, are many tombs, among which are those of (the
Companions of the Prophet) Shaddad ibn Aus ibn Thabit and
'Ubadah ibn as Samit." (Muk., 171, 172.)
Nasir-i-Khusrau, who visited Jerusalem in 1047, is the first
Muslim writer to speak of the curious edifice in the Kedron
Valley, generally known as the Tomb of Absalom, which at
the present day the Muslims speak of as Tanturah Fira'un, or
Pharaoh's Cap. Nasir writes :
" The Aksa Mosque lies at the (south) east quarter of the city,
whereby the eastern city wall forms also the wall of the Haram
Area. When you have passed out of the Noble Sanctuary, there
lies before you a great level plain, called the Sahirah, which,
it is said, will be the place of the resurrection, where all mankind
shall be gathered together. For this reason men from all parts of
the world come hither, and make their sojourn in the Holy City
till death overtakes them, in order that when the day fixed by God
be He praised and exalted ! shall arrive, they may thus lie in
their tombs ready and present at the appointed place. At the
border of this Plain (of the Sahirah) there is a great cemetery,
where are many places of pious renown, whither men come to
pray and offer up petitions in their need. Lying between the
mosque and this plain of the Sahirah is a great steep valley,
and down in this valley, which is like unto a fosse, are many
edifices, built after the fashion of ancient days. I saw here
a dome cut out in the stone, and it is set upon the summit of
a building. Nothing can be more curious than it is, and one asks
how it came to be placed in its present position. In the mouths
of the common people it goes by the appellation of Pharaoh's
House. The valley of which we are speaking is the Wadi
Jahannum. I inquired how this name came to be applied to the
place, and they told me that in the times of the Khalif 'Omar
may Allah receive him in grace ! the camp (of the Muslims, who
220 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
had come up to besiege Jerusalem) was pitched here on the plain
called the Sahirah, and that when 'Omar looked down and saw
this valley, he exclaimed : c Verily this is the Valley of Jahannum.'
The common people state that when you stand at the brink of the
valley you may hear the cries of those in hell, which come up
from below. I myself went there to listen, but heard nothing."
(N. Kh., 24-26.)
Yakut (in 1225) speaks of the plain called As Sahirah, at
Jerusalem, as the scene of the Resurrection and Last Judgment,
but gives no identification of its position. (Yak., iii. 25 ;
Mar., ii. 6.)
Mujir ad Din, in 1496, is the first to apply this name to the
plain immediately to the north of Jerusalem and ic-est of the
Kedron Valley; he, too, is the first to speak of the Bab as
Sahirah, in the city wall of the northern quarter. He writes of
the plain :
"As Sahirah (of old) was the plain which lies to the (north)
west of the Mount of Olives, not far from the Khalif 'Omar's
Place of Prayer. At the present day, however, the Plain of As
Sahirah is that which lies outside the Holy City immediately
to the north. There is here the burial-ground where the Muslims
(of all lands) bury their dead, and it occupies a high position
on the hillside, being called the Cemetery (Makbarah) of As
Sahirah." (M. a. D., 412.)
The Pool of Siloam and the Well of Job. In the lower part of
the Kedron Valley are found the 'Am Sulwan (the Spring of Siloam)
and the Bir Ayyub (the Well of Job). Despite its Arab name of
Ain, the Pool of Siloam is not, properly speaking, a spring, but
merely a tank fed by the aqueduct from the Virgin's Fount (called
'Ain Umm ad Daraj the Fountain of the Steps), and having an
intermittent supply consequent on the intermittent flow of the
upper spring. It was on the wall of the tunnel connecting the
Pool of Siloam with the Virgin's Fount that, in 1880, the now
celebrated Siloam inscription was accidentally discovered by a
party of Jewish schoolboys.
The Bir Ayyub, or Job's Well, which the Christians, since the
sixteenth century, have been in the habit of calling the Well of
JERUSALEM. 221
Nehemiah, is probably En Rogel the Fuller's Spring mentioned,
in the Book of Joshua (xv. 7), as standing on the boundary-line
between the tribes of Judah and Benjamin.
Of these two fountains of water, Mukaddasi, in 985, speaks as
follows : "The village of Sulwan is a place on the outskirts of the
city. Below the village is the 'Ain Sulwan (Spring of Siloam), of
fairly good water, which irrigates the large gardens which were
given in bequest ( Wakf} by the Khalif 'Oihman ibn 'Affan for
the poor of the city. Lower down than this, again, is Job's Well
(Bir Ayyub). It is said that on the Night of 'Arafat the water
of the holy well Zamzam, at Makkah, comes underground to the
water of the Spring (of Siloam). The people hold a festival here
on that evening." (Muk., 171.)
Nasir-i-Khusrau, in 1047, nas tne following entry in his Diar) :
" Going southward of the city for half a league, and down the
gorge (of the Wadi Jahannum), you come to a fountain of water
gushing out from the rock, which they call the 'Ain Sulwan (the
Spring of Siloam). There are all round the spring numerous
buildings ; and the water therefrom flows on down to a village,
where there are many houses and gardens. It is said that when
anyone washes from head to foot in this water he obtains relief
from his pains, and will even recover from chronic maladies.
There are at this spring many buildings for charitable purposes,
richly endowed ; and the Holy City itself possesses an excellent
Bimaristan (or hospital), which is provided for by considerable
sums that were given for this purpose. Great numbers of (sick)
people are here served with potions and lotions ; for there are
physicians who receive a fixed stipend, and attend at the
Bimaristan." (N. Kh., 26.)
'Ali of Herat, in 1173, writes of the 'Ain Sulwan that "its
waters are like those of the Well Zamzam (at Makkah). They
flow from under the Dome of the Rock, and appear in the
Wadi (Jahannum) which is beside the city." (A. H., Oxf. MS.,
f- 39, v.)
Yakut, writing in 1225, quotes Mukaddasi's account already
given, and adds that in his day there was a considerable suburb
of the city at Sulwan and gardens. (Yak., iii. 125, 761.) The
222 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
author of the Mardsid, who wrote about the year 1300, states
.that at his date the gardens had all disappeared, that the water
of Sulwan was no longer sweet, and that the buildings were all in
ruin. (Mar., ii. 296.)
Of the Well of Job, Suyilti quotes a curious account taken from
an older author. He writes : " The author of the Kitab al Uns
gives the following account of the well, which goes by the name
of the prophet Job. He says : I have read a paper in the hand-
writing of my cousin, Abu Muhammad al Kasim who gave me
permission to make use thereof which states that he read in a
certain book of history how once the water ran scarce among the
people of the Holy City, and in their need they went to a well in
the neighbourhood, which they descended to a depth of 80 ells.
At its mouth the well was 10 or more ells, by 4 ells across; and
its sides were lined with masonry of large stones, some of which
might measure even 5 ells, but most of those in the depth of the
well were i or 2 ells only in length. A wonder was it how these
stones had been set in their places. The water of the well was
cold and wholesome to drink, and the people used thereof during
all that year, getting it at a depth of 80 ells. When the winter
came, the water rose more abundantly in the well, till it overflowed
the brink, and ran over the ground in the bed of the Wadi, and
turned mills for grinding flour. Now once (says Abu Muhammad),
when there was scarcity of this water, and of that, too, in the 'Ain
Sulwan, I descended with some workmen to the bottom of the
well to dig there, and I saw the water flowing out from under a
rock, the breadth of which was 2 ells, by the like in height ; and
there was a cavern, the entrance of which was 3 ells high, by i\
ells across. From this cavern there rushed out an extremely cold
wind, which nearly made the lights go out ; and I perceived that
the roof of the cavern was lined with masonry. On entering a
short distance within the cavern, the torches could not be kept
alight, by reason of the force of the wind which blew therefrom.
This well is in the bed of the Wadi, and the cave is in its bed,
too ; and above and all around are high steep hills, which a man
cannot climb, except with much fatigue. This, also, is the well
of which Allah spake to His prophet Job (in the Kuran,
JERUSALEM. 223
xxxviii. 41), saying, 'Stamp? said we, ' with thy foot. This
(fountain) is to wash with; cool and to drink} And so the
account of Abu Muhammad al Kasim ends." (S., 273.)
The overflowing of the waters of Job's Well is a matter of
almost yearly occurrence, as is here stated, and possibly there
may be some underground channel connecting it with a reservoir
of water in the upper part of the Gorge of the Kedron.
The Cavern of Korah. Among the marvels of Jerusalem,
Mukaddasi mentions a great cavern which in his day was ap-
parently connected in the popular tradition with the history of
Korah and his companions in rebellion, of whom mention occurs
in the Kuran (xxviii. 76-81) under the name of Karun. Mukad-
dasi writes :
" There is at Jerusalem, without the city, a huge cavern. Ac-
cording to what I have heard from learned men, and also have
read in books, an entrance here leads into the place where lie the
people slain by Moses. But there is no surety in this ; for ap-
parently it is but a stone quarry with passages leading therefrom,
along which one may go with torches." (Muk., 185.)
CHAPTER VI.
DAMASCUS.
Description by Mukaddasi in 985 A.D. The Great Mosque Mosaics City
Gates Other accounts The rivers of Damascus Villages round the
City The Ghautah or Plain, of Damascus The various water-courses
The Hill of Jesus Ibn Jubair's description of the City and Mosque in
1184 The ascent of the Great Dome The two descriptions of the
Clepsydra Ibn Batutah's description in 1355 Shrines Suburbs
Traditions Burning of the Mosque by Timur.
DAMASCUS, called in Arabic Dimishk, or Dimashk, is probably the
most ancient city of Syria, having kept its name unchanged through
all ages. Damascus fell into the hands of the invading Muslims
in the year 635, almost immediately after the great battle on the
Yarmuk, or Hieromax River in the Hauran (see p. 54), which
sealed the fate of Byzantine dominion in Syria. The Khalif 'Omar
had named Abu 'Ubaidah commander-in-chief of the Arab army,
and, at the siege of Damascus, he took up his position before
the western city gate, leaving Khalid, the victor on the Yarmuk,
commander of the troops before the eastern gate. Khalid stormed
the quarter of the city near which he lay encamped, but on entering
the town, found that the Damascenes had already capitulated
to Abu 'Ubaidah, who was peaceably taking possession of the
western quarter. The city, therefore, was treated as one that had
in part capitulated, and in part been taken by storm ; and in con-
sequence, during the first few years of the Arab dominion, the
eastern part of the great Church of St. John was left to the
Christians, while the Muslims turned the western half into a
mosque, both Christians and Muslims, it is said, entering their
respective places of worship by the same gate.
DAMASCUS. 22$
About the year 66 1 Damascus was made the seat of Government
by the Khalif Mu'awiyah, the founder of the dynasty of Omayyah,
and, under his fourth successor, Al Walid, the Great Mosque
was built on the ruins of the Church of St. John, which in its turn
had been raised on what had originally been the site of a heathen
temple. Damascus remained the capital of the Muslim Empire
till 750, when the Omayyad Dynasty was overthrown by the
Abbasides, who before the end of this century founded Baghdad,
and transferred the capital city of Islam from Syria to Mesopo-
tamia and the banks of the Tigris. By the absence of the
Khalif and his Court, Damascus must have lost much of its
splendour. The Great Mosque, however, still remained in all
its glory, and this is well described in the following passages,
which are translated from Mukaddasi's work :
" Damascus is the chief town of Syria, and was the capital of
the sovereigns of the House of Omayyah. Here were their
palaces and their monuments, their edifices in wood and in brick.
The rampart round the city, which I saw when I was there, is
built of mud- bricks. Most of the markets are roofed in, but there
is one among them, a fine one, which is open, running the whole
length of the town. Damascus is a city intersected by streams
and begirt with trees. Here prices are moderate, fruits and snow
abound, and the products of both hot and cold climes are found.
Nowhere else will be seen such magnificent hot baths, nor such
beautiful fountains, nor people more worthy of consideration.
" The city is in itself a very pleasant place, but of its disadvan-
tages are, that the climate is scorching and the inhabitants are
turbulent. Fruit here is insipid, and meat hard ; also the houses
are small, and the streets sombre. Finally, the bread there is
bad, and a livelihood is difficult to make. Around the city, for
the distance of half a league in every direction, there stretches the
level Plain (of the Ghutah). In a certain book that I found in the
library of 'Adud ad Daulah, it is said that there are two cities,
which are the brides of the earth namely, Damascus and Ar Ray
( Rhages) ; and Yahya ibn Aktham states that there are in the
world three places of perfect delight namely, the Vale of Samar-
kand, the (Ghutah) of Damascus, and the Canal of Ubullah (below
22 6 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
REFERENCES TO THE PLAN OF THE GREAT OMAYYAD
MOSQUE AT DAMASCUS.
A. B&b al Barfd, Gate of the Post.
B. Bab Jairun, also called Bab as Sa'aM by Ibn Batutah.
C. Gate called at the present day Bab az Ziyjldah, Gate of the Addition ; or
Bab as Surmayaliyyah, Gate of the Shoemaker's Bazaar. By Mukaddasi
(985) named Bab as Sa'dt, Gate of the Hours.
D. Gate called at the present day B&b al 'Amarah ; called Bab al Faradis, the
Gate of the Gardens, by Mukaddasi and Idrisl ; and Bab an Nadfiyyiiv
Gate of the Confectioners, by Ibn Jubair, or Bab an Natif^niyyin.
E. Madhanat al Gharbiyyah, the Western Minaret.
F. Mzldhanat 'Isa, Minaret of Jesus ; or the White Minaret.
G. Madhanat al 'Arus, the Minaret of the Bride.
H. The Great Mihrab, near which is the ancient gateway, now closed, sur-
mounted by the Greek inscription, and which opened into the Church of
St. John.
I. The great Dome of Lead, or Dome of the Eagle.
J. Shrine said to contain John the Baptist's head.
K. Dome of the Treasury, at one time called the Dome, or the Tomb of
'Ayishah.
L. Dome of the Fountain, or the W T ater-cage.
M. Dome of the Hours, or the Dome of Zain al 'Abidin.
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DAMASCUS. 227
Baghdad). Damascus was founded by Dimask, the son of Kani,
the son of Malik, the son of Arfakhshad (Arphaxad), the son of
Sam (Shem), five years before the birth of Abraham ; Al Asma'i,
however, asserts that its name is to be derived from the word
Dim-uhkuhci, meaning ' they hastened to its building.' Such as I
know myself among its gates are : Bab al Jabiyah, Bab as Saghir
(the Small Gate), Bab al Kabir (the Great Gate), Bab ash Sharki
(the Eastern Gate), Bab Tuma (the Gate of St. Thomas), Bab an
Nahr (the Gate of the River), and Bab al Muhamaliyyin (the Gate
of those who make Camel-litters).
"The Mosque of Damascus is the fairest of any that the
Muslims now hold, and nowhere is there collected together greater
magnificence. Its outer walls are built of squared stones, accurately
set, and of large size ; and crowning the walls are splendid battle-
ments. The columns supporting the roof of the Mosque consist
of black polished pillars in a triple row, and set widely apart. In
the centre of the building, over the space fronting the Mihrab
(towards Makkah), is a great dome. Round the court are lofty
colonnades, above which are arched windows, and the whole area
is paved with white marble. The (inner) walls of the Mosque, for
twice the height of a man, are faced with variegated marbles ; and,
above this, even to the very ceiling, are mosaics of various colours
and in gold, showing figures of trees and towns and beautiful
inscriptions, all most exquisitely and finely worked. And rare are
the trees, and few the well-known towns, that will not be found
figured on these walls ! The capitals of the columns are covered
with gold, and the vaulting above the arcades is everywhere orna-
mented in mosaic. The columns round the court are all of white
marble, while the walls that enclose it, the vaulted arcades, and
the arched windows above, are adorned in mosaic with arabesque
designs. The roofs are everywhere overlaid with plates of lead, and
the battlements on both sides are faced with the mosaic work.
"On the right (or western) side* of the court is the treasure-
house (Bait Mai) raised on eight columns, finely ornamented, and
the walls are covered with mosaic. Both within the Mihrab, and
around it, are set cut-agates and turquoises of the size of the finest
* The visitor is supposed to stand facing the Great Mihrjib, H.
I 2
228 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
stones that are used in rings. Beside the (great) Mihrab, and to
the left (east) of it, there is another, which is for the special use of
the Sultan. It was formerly much dilapidated; but I hear now
that he has expended thereon five hundred Dinars (^"250) to
restore the same to its former condition. On the summit of the
Dome of the Mosque is an orange, and above it a pomegranate,
both in gold. But of the most wonderful of the sights here worthy
of remark is verily the setting of the various coloured marbles, and
how the veining in each follows from that of its neighbour ; and it
is such that, should an artist come daily during a whole year and
stand before these mosaics, he might always discover some new
pattern and some fresh design. It is said that the Khalif al Walid,
in order to construct these mosaics, brought skilled workmen from
Persia, India, Western Africa, and Byzantium, spending thereon
the whole revenues of Syria for seven years, as well as eighteen
shiploads of gold and silver, which came from Cyprus. And this
does not include what the Emperor of Byzantium and the Amirs
of the Muslims gave to him in the matter of precious stones and
other materials for the mosaics.
" The people enter the Mosque by four gates namely, Bab
Jairun, Bab al Faradis, Bab al Barid, and Bab as Sa'at. Bab al
Barid (the Gate of the Post) opens into the right-hand (or west
side of the court). It is of great size, and has two smaller gate-
ways to right and to left of it. The chief gateway and the two
lesser ones have each of them double doors, which are covered
with plates of gilded copper. Over the great and the two smaller
gateways are the porticos, and the doors open into the long colon-
nades going round the court, which are vaulted over, the arches of
the vault resting on marble columns, while the walls are covered
(with mosaics) after the manner that has already been described.
The ceilings here are all painted after the most exquisite designs.
In these colonnades is the place of the paper-sellers, and also the
court of the Kadi's (or Judge's) lieutenant. Thus the Gate Al Barid
opens between the rnain-building (the covered part of the Mosque)
and the court. Opposite to it, and on the left-hand side (or east) r
is the Bab Jairun, which is similar to the Gate Al Barid just
described, only that its porticos are vaulted over in the breadth.
DAMASCUS. 229
To this gate you ascend by steps, on which the astrologers and
other such people are wont to take their seat. Bab as Sa'at (the
Gate of the Hours) is in the eastern* angle of the covered part (cf
the Mosque). It has double doors, which are unornamented, and
over it is a portico, under which the public notaries and the like
take their seat. The fourth gate is called Bab al Faradis (the
Gate of the Gardens), also with double doors. It is opposite the
Mihrab, and opens into the colonnades (on the north side of the
courtyard), between the two additions (Az Ziyadatain) which have
been built here on the right and the left. Above it rises a minaret.
This has recently been constructed (or repaired), and is ornamented
(with mosaic work) in the manner already described. Before each
of these four gates is a place for ablution, of marble, provided
with cells, wherein is running water, and fountains which flow into
great marble basins. In the Mosque is a channel which they open
once every year, and from it water gushes out, flooding the whole
floor of the Mosque to about an ell deep, and its walls and area
are thus cleansed. Then they open another conduit, and through
it the water runs off. From the Sultan's palace, which is behind
the Mosque, and is called Al Khadra (the Green Palace), are
gates leading into the Maksurah (which is the Sultan's place of
prayer), and these are plated with gold.
"The Omayyad Khalif 'Omar ibn 'Abd al Aziz, it is said,
wished at one time to demolish the Mosque, and make use of its
materials in the public works of the Muslims ; but he was at last
persuaded to abandon the design. I have read in some book
that there was expended on this Mosque the value of eighteen
mule-loads of gold." (Muk., 156-160. The order of the para-
graphs in our translation has, in some instances, been transposed.)
In regard to the mosaic work, some fragments of which may
still be seen at the present day on the walls of the Mosque, the
following note, written on the margin of one of the MSS. of
Mukaddasi, is worth translating :
" Mosaic is composed of morsels of glass, such as are used for
the standard coin-weights ; but they are yeliow in colour, or gray,
black, red, and mottled, or else gilt, by laying gold on the surface,
* Probably a mistake for " western."
230 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
which is then covered by a thin sheet of glass. They prepare
plaster with Arabian gum, and lay it over the walls ; and this they
ornament with the mosaics, which are set so as to form figures
and inscriptions. In some cases they cover the whole surface
with the gold-mosaic, so that all the wall seems as though it were
built of nothing but pure gold." Mosaic is called in Arabic
Fashfashah or Fusaifusa, a corruption of the Greek 4^0; ; for
the Muslims were in this, as in many other arts, the pupils of the
Byzantines, and borrowed their technical terms from the Greek.
The two main gates of the Mosque Bab Jairun, opening east :
and Bab al Barid, opening west bear the same names now that they
did in the earliest days of Islam. But there is some confusion in
the names of Mukaddasi's two last-mentioned gates that is, Bab as
Sa'at and Bab al Faradis. The plan of the Mosque, given by the
Rev. J. L. Porter in the first edition of Five Years in Damascus
(London, 1855), is here reproduced. There is no gate opening
at the present day into "the eastern" angle of the Mosque. In the
western portion of the south wall is the gate for which A. von
Kremer (Topography of Damascus, in vol. v. of the Zeitschrift
Acad. Wiss., Wien, 1854) gives three names viz., Bab as
Surmayatiyyah (of the Shoemaker's Bazaar), or Az Ziyadah (of
the Addition), or As Sa'at (of the Hours). Bab az Ziyadah is
the name by which this gate is generally known at present. This
cannot be the gate which Mukaddasi calls Bab al Faradis, for
that, he says, lies " opposite the Mihrab," and opens into the
colonnades through the recent additions (Ziyadatain\ although it
must be confessed that this last word recalls the name of the
present Bab az Ziyadah (Gate of the Addition). Mukaddasi's
Bab al Faradis, however, from its position, must be the modern
Bab al 'Amarah, which opens north, and is immediately east of
the present Madhanat al 'Arus (the Minaret of the Bride). This
last would, therefore, be the recently-constructed minaret of
Mukaddasi ; but that here, again, is a doubt, for this is the most
ancient minaret of the Mosque, having been built by the Omayyad
Khalif al Walid. Perhaps, however, for "constructed" we should
understand "restored," and the Arabic may bear 44ws interpreta-
tion. Mukaddasi's Bab al Faradis (Gate of the Gardens), which
DAMASCUS. 231
were on the Barada River to the north, is further identical with
the Bab an Natifiyyin (Gate of the Confectioners) mentioned by
Ibn Jubair (see below, p. 252), by whom, also, the south gate
(Mukaddasi's Bab as Sa'at) is invariably spoken of as the Bab az
Ziyadah. The gates leading from the Mosque to Mu'awiyah's
Palace of the Khadra would appear to have opened through the
original south door of the Church of St. John, long since closed,
but over the lintel of which may be read to the present day the
well-known inscription in Greek : * Thy kingdom, O Christ, is an
everlasting kingdom, and Thy dominion endureth throughout all
generations?* This was, doubtless, the gate of entrance used by
Muslims and Christians alike, till the time of Al Walid's rebuilding
of the Mosque.
The city gates, seven in number, enumerated by Mukaddasi,
may, for the most part, be easily identified. Bab Jabiyah, called
from the suburb of that name, is at the western end of the
" Straight Street," at the eastern end of which is Bab ash Sharki,
the East Gate. During the siege of Damascus, according to
Biladhuri, Khalid lay before this East Gate, while Abu 'Ubaidalvs
camp was at the Bab Jabiyah. (Bil., 121.) Bab as Saghir, the
Small Gate, lies at the south-western angle of the city wall. At the
present day the name is generally corrupted into Bab ash Shaghur,
from the suburb of the name lying near it. Mukaddasi's Bab al
Kabir, the Great Gate, is, presumably, what is otherwise called, in
both ancient and modern days, Bab Kaisan. It opens at the
south-eastern angle of the city wall. Between Bab Kaisan and
Bab as Saghir, says Biladhuri, lay the army under Yazid ibn Abi
Sufiyan during the great siege. After passing Bab ash Sharki, Bab
Tuma (Gate of St. Thomas) is at the north-east angle ; and here,
during the siege, were the troops under the Arab general 'Amr
ibn al 'As, in later years the conqueror of Egypt. Bab an Nahr
(the River Gate) must have opened on the Barada, and is probably
the Bab al Faradis, mentioned by Biladhuri as the site of Shurah-
bil's camp at the siege. It opens immediately to the north of the
Great Mosque. Bab al Mahamaliyyin, the Gate of the Camel
Litter-makers, is probably the Bab al Faraj mentioned by Ibn
* Psalm cxlv. 13. The words ' O Christ ' being interpolated.
232 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Jubair (see below, p. 254), or else the modern Bab al Hadid,
which, in Ibn Jubair's days, was called Bab an Nasr. Bab as
Salam, or As Salamah, the Gate of Safety, which is first mentioned
by Idrisi (see below, p. 239), opens on the river, in the north
wall, between the Bab Tiima and the Bab al Faradis.
During the century preceding Mukaddasi, we have several short
notices of Damascus. One of the earliest is found in the Road
Book of Ibn Khurdadbih, who wrote in 864. According to his
view " Damascus is (the fabled city of) Irani of the Columns
(Iram dhat al ^Amud\ The city is said to have been in existence
before the days of Noah peace be on him ! and it was from
Jabal Lubnan /the Lebanon) that Noah set forth in the ark,
which came to rest again on Mount Al Judi in the Kurd country.
When the children of Noah had multiplied, they abandoned the
caves (Sardafr) made by King Nimrud ibn Kush, who was the
first of the kings in the earth ; and he reigned over the Jews, who
are the People of the Law." (I. Kh., 71.)
Ya'kubi, in 891, writes :
" Damascus is the capital of Syria. Its river is the Barada.
Abu Ubaidah, in the year 14 (635), gained possession of the city
by capitulation, entering by the Bab al Jabiyah ; while Khalid
stormed the Bab ash Sharki. Damascus was the seat of the
ancient Ghassanide kings. It contains also relics of the Jafnide
princes. It was the capital of the Omayyads ; and (the Green
Palace called) Al Khadra of Mu'awiyah, which was the seat of
his Government, is here. The Mosque, the finest in Islam, was
built by the Khalif al Walid " (Yb., 113.)
In the epitome of Ibn al Fakih, the following notes are found
on Damascus. The tenor of them has been copied by many
subsequent writers :
" Damascus has six gates ; these are : Bab al Jabiyah, Bab as
Saghir, Bab Kaisan, Bab ash Sharki, Bab Tuma, and Bab al Faradis.
All these existed from the days of the Greeks. When the Khalif
al Walid had the intention of rebuilding the Mosque at Damascus,
he sent for the Christians of Damascus, and said to them : ' We
purpose to add your church to our Mosque ; but we will give you
a place for a church elsewhere, and wheresoever you will.'
DAMASCUS. 233
" And the Christians sought to turn him from it, saying :
4 Verily it is written in our books that he who shall destroy this
church shall choke to death.'
" But Al Walid cried out : ' Verily I will be the first to destroy
it.' So he went up into the church, and there was a yellow dome
there, and this he destroyed with his own hand. And the people
pulled down other portions, as he set the example. After this he
increased the size of the Mosque by the double. When the
church had thus been destroyed, the King of Rum (Byzantium)
wrote to the Khalif, saying : * Verily thou hast destroyed the
church which thy father did purpose to preserve. Now, if thou
didst right, thy father then did wrong ; and even if he did wrong,
was it for thee to set thyself in opposition to him ?'
" Al Walid did not know what to answer, but took counsel
of the people, and sent to Al 'Irak even for advice in the matter.
And the poet, Al Farazdak, said to him : ' O, Commander
of the Faithful, answer in the words of Allah be He exalted and
glorified ! And (remember) David and Solomon, when they gave
judgment concerning a field when some people's sheep had caused
a waste therein ; and We were witnesses of their judgment. And
We gave Solomon insight into the affair ; and on both of them IVe
bestowed wisdom and knowledge? (Kuran, xxi. 78, 79.) So
Al Walid wrote to the King of Rum this verse for an answer,
and received no reply.
" Al Walid spent on the building of the Mosque at Damascus
the land-tax (Kharaj) of the Empire during seven years. He
finished the building thereof in the space of eight years. The ac-
counts of the expenditure were brought in to him on the backs of
eighteen camels, but he ordered them all to be burnt. There is pray-
ing space for twenty thousand men in this Mosque, and there are six
hundred golden chains for suspending the lamps. Of Zaid ibn
Wakid, it is related that the Khalif al Walid made him overseer
for the building of the Mosque at Damascus, and he discovered
there a cave, the fact of which was made known to Al \Valid. By
night the Khalif descended thereinto, and, behold, it was a beautiful
chapel, 3 ells long, by the like across, and within lay a chest,
inside of which was a basket, on which was written : This is the
234 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Head of John, the son of Zacharias. And after they had examined
it, Al Walid commanded that it should be placed under a certain
pillar in the Mosque that he indicated. So it was placed beneath
this pillar, which is now inlaid with marble, and it is the fourth of
those on the eastern side, and is known as 'Amud as Sakasik, the
Pillar of Humility. At the time the head was laid here, Zaid,
aforesaid, states that he saw the same, and that the hair and flesh
thereon had nowise suffered decay.
"The Minarets (Afaidhanah) which are in the Damascus Mosque
were originally watch-towers in the Greek days, and belonged to
the Church of John. When Al Walid destroyed this church, and
turned the whole Area into a Mosque, he left these in their old
condition. He who was afterwards the Khalif Mu'awiyah built the
Khadra (Palace) in Damascus during the Khalifate of 'Othman, and
while he himself was Governor of Syria." (I. F., 106-108.)
From Mas'udi's great historical work, entitled 'Ihe Meadows
of Gold, written in the year 943 A.D., some interesting notes on
Damascus are to be gleaned :
" The Khalif Mu'awiyah lies buried at the gate called Bab as
Saghir; this tomb is still, in the present year, 332 A.H., much
visited. Over it stands a building, which is opened every Monday
and Thursday." (Mas., v. 14.)
" In the year 87 (706) the Khalif al Walid began the construction
of the Great Mosque at Damascus. When he had begun to
build, they found in the court of the Mosque a tablet of stone, on
which was an inscription in Greek, which none of the learned
could read, till it was sent to Wahb ibn Munabbih, who pronounced
that it had been written in the days of Solomon, the son of David;
and Wahb read it. The Khalif al W T alid gave orders to set an
inscription in gold on lapis lazuli in the court of the Mosque, and
it ran as follows : Allah is our Lord, and we worship none but
Allah. The servant of Allah, Al Watid, the Commander of the
Faithful, hath ordered the building of this Mosque, and the destruc-
tion of the church which was here in former days. Set up in Dhu-l-
Hijjah of the year 87.* These words, written in gold, may be seen
* Not a trace of this inscription is to be seen at the present day. Con-
cerning Wahb ibn Munabbih, see p. 142.
DAMASCUS. 235
in the Mosque of Damascus in these our own days, in the year
332 A.H." (Mas., v. 361.)
Concerning Jairftn, after whom the eastern gate of the Mosque
is named, Mas'udi supplies the following information :
"Jairun was the son of Sa'ad, son of 'Ad, and he came to
Damascus, and made it his capital. He transported thither a
great number of columns of marble and alabaster, and constructed
thereof a lordly edifice, which he called Irani dhdt al 'Amud, or
Iram of the Columns. In our own days, in the year 332 A.M., this
same edifice is to be seen in one of the markets at the Gate of the
Great Mosque, called Bab Jairun. This Palace of Jairun was
a wondrous building. Its gates were of brass. Part of it
remains as it was, and part is incorporated in the Mosque."
(Mas., iii. 271.)
The geographer Istakhri, whose work was re-edited by Ibn
Haukal in 978, gives the following account of Damascus. Ibn
Haukal's work, it will be noted, is almost contemporaneous with
the long description already quoted from Mukaddasi :
" I Damascus (Dimishk) is the name of the province ; and its
capital, called by the same name, is the most glorious of the cities
of Syria. It lies in an extensive plain, with mountains round it,
and water in plenty is on every hand. Trees and fields are
continuous on all sides. This plain is called the Ghutah ; it
extends a march across, by two marches in length, and nowhere in
all Syria is there a more delightful place. The waters of Damascus
take their rise at a spot under a church, known by the name of Al
Fijah, to which place also descends the stream from 'Ain Barada
in Jabal Sanir. And all along its banks are numerous springs.
The spring of water at Fijah is an ell deep, by a fathom across.
Below this spot there branches off a great canal, which the Khalif
Yazid, son of Mu'awiyah, had dug. This is so deep that a man
may plunge into its waters. Below this, again, there branch off
(the two canals of) the Nahr al Mizzah and the Nahr al Kanat (or
Kanawat). The main stream leaves the gorges at a place called
An Nirab. This is said to be the place alluded to in the words
of the Kuran (xxiii. 52): 'And we prepared for both (Mary
and her Son) an abode in a lofty hill, quiet, and watered with
236 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
springs.' Below this gorge is the main stream of the Barada
river. In the middle of the city of Damascus a bridge crosses the
river, for the stream is very broad, and so deep that a rider cannot
ford it. Below the city, again, the river waters all the villages
of the Ghutah. But from above, the water is conducted into ail
the houses and streets and baths of the city.
" Now, as to the Mosque at Damascus, there is none to equal it
in all Islam, and on none other has so much been spent. The
walls and the dome, which is above the Mihrab near the Maksurah,
were built by the ancient Sabaeans, for this was their place of
worship. After them it came into the hands of the Greeks, and
they also held their worship there. From them it passed to the
Jews, and the kings who were idolaters. In their day was slain
John, the son of Zacharias, and they set up his head above the
Gate of the Mosque, which is called the Bab Jairun. And after this
the Christians conquered the city, and in their hands it became a
church, wherein they were wont to worship. Now, when Islam
came, and the place passed into the power of the Muslims, they
turned it into a mosque, and over the Gate Jairun was set the
head of Al Husain ibn 'Ali (grandson of the Prophet), in the very
place where had been set the head of John the son of Zacharias
of old. When it came to the days of the Khalif al Walid, the son
of 'Abd al Malik, he built (the Mosque), laying down the pave-
ment in marbles, facing the walls with variegated marble, and
setting up marble pillars of various colours ; and the keystones (of
the arches) and the capitals of the columns he overlaid with gold.
The Mihrab also was gilt everywhere, and set with precious stones,
while the ceiling was of wooden beams likewise gilt. All round
the ceiling ran an inscription on a gold background, and this con-
tinued round all the four walls of the Mosque.
"It is said that there was spent on this Mosque the whole
revenue of Syria for two (five or seven)* years. The roof of the
Mosque is of leaden plates. When they wish to cleanse the
Mosque they let in water, which flows over the whole of the floor,
and before it is drawn off it has spread out into all the corners,
for the area is perfectly level. In the time of the Omayyads, the
Kharaj (or revenue from the land-tax) of Syria was 1,200,000
* Other MSS.
DAMASCUS. 237
Dinars (another MS. gives the amount as 1,800,000 Dinars
^600,000 or ^900,000). The violent and insurgent ways of the
Damascenes are owing to the influence of their Star, which is the
sign of Leo, and it has this effect when in the ascendant. The
Damascenes are always revolting against their governors, and they
are treacherous by nature. Leo in the ascendant is also the Star
of Samarkand, Ardabil, Makkah, and Palermo." (Is., 59, 60;
I. H., 114-116, and copied in part by A. F., 230.)
Idrisi, writing in 1154 from the accounts he obtained of home-
coming travellers, or read in books for, as above noticed (p. 7), it
would not appear that he had ever himself travelled in Syria
gives a most glowing account of Damascus and the great plain in
which the city lies. He writes :
"Damascus is the most beautiful city of Syria, the finest in
situation, the most temperate in climate, the most hurnid in soil,
having the greatest variety of fruits, and the utmost abundance of
vegetables. The greater part of the land here is fruitful, and the
most portion rich. Everywhere is seen the plain country, and the
houses are high built. Damascus has hills and fields, which last are
(in a plain) called the Ghautah (or Ghutah). The Ghautah is two
marches long, with a breadth of one march ; and in it are farmsteads
that resemble towns ; such are Al Mizzah, Daraya, Barzah, Harasta,
Kaukaba, Balas, Kafar Susiyyah, and Bait Ilahiya, in which last is
a mosque nearly as large as that of Damascus. From the western
gate of Damascus goes the Wadi al Banafsaj, the Valley of Violets,
the length of which is 1 2 miles, and the breadth 3 miles. It is
everywhere planted with various sorts of fruit-trees. Five streams
run through it, and in every one of its domains are from one to
two thousand inhabitants. The Ghautah, too, is covered with
trees and crossed by rivers, and its waters ramify and spread into
all its orchards and farms. There are grown here all sorts of
fruits, so that the mind cannot conceive the variety, nor can any
comparison show what is the fruitfulness and excellence thereof,
for Damascus is the most delightful of all God's cities in the whole
world. The waters of the Ghautah come down in part from 'Ain
al Fijah, which is a spring up in the mountains. The waters
burst out high in the mountain-flank like a great river, making a
frightful noise and a great rushing, which you may hear from afar.
238 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
The water flows down from hence to the village of Abil, and from
here attains the city. But before it comes to the city there branch
off from it many well-known canals, such as the Nahr Yazid, Nahr
Thaurah, Nahr Barada, Nahr Kanat al Mizzah, Nahr Banas, Nahr
Sakt, Nahr Yashkur, and Nahr 'Adiyah. The water of the river
of Damascus is not used for drinking purposes, for into its stream
open the conduits that carry away the filth of the city, and the
pipes from the wash-houses and the smaller waterways. The
water of the river ramifies through all the city, and over its main
stream is a bridge which the people cross, as likewise is the case
by the other canals we have mentioned. From the riverside go
the markets, and water is conducted to all parts of the city, entering
the houses and the baths and the markets and the gardens.
" In Damascus there is the Mosque, the like of which building
exists in no other place of the earth, nor is any more beautiful in
proportion, nor any more solidly constructed, nor any more
securely vaulted, nor any more wonderfully planned, nor any
more admirably decorated with all varieties of gold mosaic work,
and enamelled tiles, and polished marble. The Mosque stands in
a quarter of the city called Al Mizab. He who approaches it by
the side of the Bab Jairun ascends thereto by large and broad
steps of marble some thirty in number, while whoso would enter
the Mosque from the side of the Bab al Barid, or from the Khadra
passage-way, or from the Kasr (Castle), or from the Golden Stone
(Hajar ad/i Dhahab\ or the Bab al Faradis, enters on the level of
the ground and ascends no steps. There are in the Mosque many
remains of past ages, such as the walls, and the dome, which is
above the Mihrab near the Maksurah. They say that this dome
was built by the Sabaeans, it having been their place of prayer ;
after whom it passed into the hands of the Greeks, who celebrated
therein the rites of their religion ; and after them it passed to
certain kings who were idolaters, and then it served as a house for
their idols. It then passed to the Jews, and in their days John,
the son of Zachariah, was put to death, and his head was placed
above the Gate of the Mosque, called the Bab Jairun. Next the
Christians took the city, and, entering into possession, in their
hands the edifice became a church, wherein they performed their
services. Lastly came Islam, conquering the city, and the Muslims
DAMASCUS. 239
turned it into a Jami' Mosque. Now, when it came to the days of
the Khalif al Walid, the son of 'Abd al Malik, of the House of
Omayyah, he built the Mosque, and laid the floor in marble, and
gilded the arches and the capitals, and erected a golden Mihrab
(or niche), and set into all the walls jewels of various kinds. And
all under the ceiling ran an inscription, which went round the four
walls of the Mosque, of most beautiful workmanship and most
elegant characters. It is said that this Khalif covered the outer roof
with plates of lead, firmly joined together, and of most durable
construction. Water was brought into (the Mosque) through
conduits of lead, and when it was necessary to cleanse the
Mosque, they opened the water-pipes, and in a most convenient
manner flooded the whole of the Mosque court. They say that
the Khalif al Walid, aforementioned, expended on the construction
of the Jami' Mosque the revenues of Syria for two whole years.
" Damascus has been rebuilt since the days of Islam. In
ancient times there stood on the place it now occupies a town
called Al Jabiyah. This was in the days of ignorance (before
Islam), and Damascus was subsequently built in its place. The
city has various gates ; among others, Bab al Jabiyah. Before this
gate there are lands that are everywhere built over with houses, for
a distance of some 6 miles in the length, and 3 miles in the
breadth, and the whole of this space is covered with trees and
houses, among which meander streams of water. Of other gates
are Bab Tuma (Gate of St. Thomas), Bab as Salamah, Bab al
Faradis over against which last is the convent known as Dair
Murran and lastly, Bab as Saghii.
" The City of Damascus contains all manner of good things,
and streets of various craftsmen, with (merchants selling) all sorts of
silk and brocade of exquisite rarity and wonderful workmanship
all this, such that the like exists nowhere else. That which they
make here is carried into all cities, and borne in ships to all
quarters, and all capital towns both far and near. The manu-
facture of the Damascus brocade is a wonderful art. It some-
what resembles the best of the brocades of the Greeks, and is like
to the cloths of Dastawa (in Persia), and rivals the work of Ispahan,
being preferred for workmanship to the broideries of Nishapur
for the beauty of the unvariegated raw-silk woof. Further, the
2 4 o PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Damascus work is better than the best of the (Egyptian) cloths
from Tinnis, and the embroideries of Damascus take the prize of
the most precious of stuffs, and of all beautiful things. You cannot
equal them in any sort, nor set to them their like.
" Within the City of Damascus there are many mills on the
streams, and the wheat ground there is of extremely good quality.
Also there are various kinds of fruits, which for sweetness you will
not find the like elsewhere ; and it would be impossible to describe
the abundance and the excellence and the lusciousness thereof.
The inhabitants of Damascus have most plentiful means of liveli-
hood, and all they require. The craftsmen of the city are in high
renown, and its merchandise is sought in all the markets of the
earth ; while the city itself is the most lovely of the cities of Syria
and the most perfect for beauty." (Id., 12-15.)
'All of Herat, who wrote in 1173, mentions among the places
worthy of visitation at Damascus, the Hill (Ribwah), near Jabal al
Kasiyun,* where Christ and the Virgin Mary dwelt ; also the
Cavern of Blood, where Cain slew Abel. All this has been
copied into Yakut (see below, p. 259). At a place called Mash-
had al Akdam, south of Damascus, is shown a sacred foot-
print, and near it the Tomb of Moses ; but this last, as 'AH
remarks, is not authentic. In the court of the Damascus Mosque,
the small edifice known as the Treasury (Bait al Mai) was
pointed out in his day as being the Tomb of 'Ayishah, the
Prophet's favourite wife. (A. H., Oxf. MS., ff. 16, 24.)
In the year 1184 Damascus was visited by the Spanish Arab
Ibn Jubair. He has devoted a large section of his Diary to a
description of all the wonders of the city, which he duly visited
during his sojourn there. These he enumerates and describes in
the rhetorical style so much affected by the writers of this period.
A full translation of his Diary would be tedious and occupy too
much space ; and in the following rendering of the original Arabic,
while everything of interest has, it is hoped, been preserved, the
* The name of Jabal Kasiyun, the hill overhanging Damascus on the north-
west, is said to be a corruption of Mons Casius. It should be noted, however,
that no classical geographer speaks of a Mons Casius in the neighbourhood of
Damascus.
DAMASCUS. 241
pompous phraseology has been considerably condensed. The
caravan with which Ibn Jubair travelled reached Damascus in
July, 1184 (Second Rabi' A.H. 580), and they stopped at a
place called Dar al Hadith, lying to the west of the Jami' Mosque.
After speaking of the beautiful gardens, the excellent climate, and
other such matters which have caused the city to be called the
Bride of the Earth, Ibn Jubair notes that to the east extends the
plain of the Ghautah, green and beautiful to see, the whole country
round being a perfect Paradise of Earth. His description of the
Great Mosque is as follows :
" Of the wonders of the Jami' Mosque of Damascus is that no
spider spins his web there, and no bird of the swallow-kind
(Khutt&f) alights thereon. The Khalif al Walid was he who began
to build the Mosque. He applied to the King of the Greeks at
Constantinople to send him twelve thousand men of the artificers
of his country, at the same time threatening him with chastise-
ment if he delayed. But the King of the Greeks did as he was
commanded with all docility, and many embassies went from the
one Sovereign to the other, even as is related in the books of
history. Then the Khalif began, and brought to a close, the
building of the Mosque. And all its walls were overlaid with the
mosaic work called Al Fusaifusa. With this ornamentation they
depicted in varied colours all manner of objects, such as trees,
making the semblance of their branches hanging down, all worked
into a pattern. Also there were interlaced scrolls of mosaic,
whereon were depicted various novel and wonderful subjects most
astounding to behold ; so that, on account of the brilliancy and
splendour, those who came were fain to cover their eyes. The
sum expended on the building of the Mosque according to the
authority of Ibn al Mughlt al Asadi, in his work descriptive of
the building was four hundred chests, each chest containing
28,000 Dinars, the sum total coming to 11,200,000 Dinars.*
" It was the Khalif al Walid who took possession of that half
of the Mosque which was still in the hands of the Christians, and
threw the two portions into one. For in early days the building
* Above five and a half millions sterling. The figures are doubtless
imaginary, and some different readings occur in the MSS.
16
242 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
was divided into two portions one half and it was the eastern
belonged to the Muslims, and the other half namely, the
western to the Christians. And this by reason that Abu
'Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah had (during the siege) entered the city on
the west quarter, and had reached the western side of the church,
and here had made a capitulation with the Christians: while, in
the meantime, Khalid ibn al Walid had taken the eastern part of
the city by assault, and had from this side arrived at the eastern
wall of the church. The eastern portion (of the Church of St.
John) thus came by conquest into the hands of the Muslims, and
they had made of it a mosque ; but the western half, where the
treaty of capitulation had been granted, had remained to the
Christians, and was their church until the time when Al Walid
took it from them. He would have given them another church in
exchange ; but the Christians would not agree, and they made objec-
tion to the act of the Khalif, and forced him to take their church
from them by force, and he himself began the work of demolishing
the building. Now, it had been said that he who should pull
down this church would become mad ; but, none the less, Al
Walid made haste to begin, crying out, ' Let me be mad ; yea,
mad in the work of God !' and so began to pull down the walls
with his own hands. Then the Muslims hastened to his aid, and
very soon the whole was demolished. Afterwards, during the
days of the Khalif 'Omar ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz, the Christians laid
a petition before the Khalif on this matter, and they brought
forth the treaty which was in their hands, in which the Companions
(of the Prophet who were present at the siege) had agreed to
leave the western portion to them entirely. 'Omar would fain
have given the Mosque back to the Christians, but the Muslims
were of a mind to prevent him. So the Khalif gave the Christians
in exchange for their consent to its remaining to the Muslims a
great sum, and with this they went away content. It is said that
the first who raised the Kiblah wall at this spot was the Prophet
Hud peace be on him ! so, at least, says Ibn al Mughli. Ac-
cording to the authority of the traditionist Sufiyan ath Thuri, one
prayer said in this Mosque is equivalent to thirty thousand prayers
said elsewhere.
DAMASCUS. 243
" We shall now proceed to enumerate the measurements of the
Mosque, and to give the number of gates and windows therein.
The measure of it in the length, from east to west, is 200 paces
(khatwali], which is equivalent to 300 ells; and the measuie
thereof in the width, from the Kiblah to the middle (of the north
wall), is 135 paces, which is 200 ells. Its area in Maghribi
Marja's* is 24 Marja's. And this is also the measurement of the
Prophet's Mosque (at Al Madinah) ; except that in this last the
length is in the direction from north to south, not east and west,
as at Damascus. The aisles (bal&tati) of the (Main-building of the)
Mosque adjoin the southern side of the court, and are three in
number, running from west to east. The breadth of each aisle is
1 8 paces each pace counting as i J ells and the said aisles are
supported on sixty-eight columns. Of these, fifty-four are pillars
(that stand alone), while eight are pilasters of gypsum, and two
are built of marble, and are set into the wall which divides the
aisles from the court. The remaining four columns are made of
most exquisite marble set in with colpured stones in mosiac, each
stone of which might be coveted as a ring-stone. Some of the
Mihrabs (prayer-niches), and other buildings in the widest of the
naves, are also most beautifully ornamented and proportioned.
Such, for instance, is the Dome of Lead (Kubbat ar Kasa\\ and
the Dome which is over the Mihrab. The piers under this are
16 spans (shibr) broad, and 20 spans across; while between each
of the piers is a space measuring 17 paces in the length, and in
the breadth 13 paces. Each of these piers measures 72 spans in
perimeter.
" All round three sides of the court is a colonnade (balat).
On the eastern, western, and northern sides its breadth is 10 paces.
The number of its columns is forty-seven, of which fourteen are
pilasters of gypsum, and the remainder are free-standing. The
breadth of the court, exclusive of the portion roofed over on the
south and on the north, is 100 paces. The roofs of the Mosque
buildings, externally, are all covered with sheets of lead. The
most magnificent sight in this Jami' Mosque is the Kubbat ar
* The Mat-ja was a land -measure in use throughout Spain and the Western
Lands, and contained about seven square yards of superficies.
1 6 2
244 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Rasas (the Dome of Lead), which is above the Mihrab in the
centre of the building. Its summit towers high in the air, of a
wonderful circumference ; so that it would seem as though it were
a great temple. A central nave is below it, going from the
Mihrab to the court ; and over this nave (as seen from the
interior) are three domes namely, the dome which is close to the
Mosque wall towards the court ; the dome which is over and
adjacent to the Mihrab ; and the dome which is below (that is,
forming the inner skin of) the Kubbat ar Rasas, rising between
the other two. The Great Dome of Lead thus broods over the
void; and, as you approach, you perceive an admirable effect.
And the people have likened it to a flying Eagle (Nasr) the
Dome itself being as the head ; the aisle below being the breast ;
the half of the wall of the right aisle, and the half to the left,
being the two wings of the Eagle.* The width of this main aisle
leading towards the court is 30 paces. The people are wont to
name this part of the Mosque An Nasr 'the Eagle' on
account of this likeness. From whatever quarter you approach
the city you see this Dome, high above all else, as though sus-
pended in the air. The Mosque is situated on the northern side
of the city. The number of gilt and coloured glass windows
(called ShamasiyyaK] in the Mosque is seventy-four. In the inner
dome, which is below the Dome of Lead, are ten. In the dome
which is close to the Mihrab there are, together with those in the
adjacent wall, fourteen such windows. In the length of the wall
to the right of the Mihrab, and to the left of it, are forty-four.
In the dome adjacent to the wall of the court are six. In the
back of the wall towards the court are forty-seven windows.!
"There are in the Mosque three Maksurahs (or railed-in
spaces). The Maksurah of the Companions (of the Prophet)
Allah accept them ! was the first Maksurah ever constructed in
Islam, and it was built by the Khalif Mu'awiyah. Opposite the
Mihrab thereof, on the right of him who faces the Kiblah point,
* The Great Dome is itself known at the present day as the Kubbat an Nasr,
the Dome of the Eagle.
f Making altogether 121, not 74 ; the last 47 are presumably not counted
as in the Mosque.
DAMASCUS. 245
is the Iron (late. Mu'awiyah used to enter the Maksurah
through this, going to the Mihrab. Opposite the Mihrab, on the
right, is the Place of Prayer of Abu-d Darda Allah accept
him ! Behind the Maksurah was the Palace of Mu'awiyah.
This, at the present day, is the Great Bazaar of the Coppersmiths,
and it lies contiguous to the Kiblah (or south) wall of the
Mosque. There is no bazaar to be seen anywhere finer than
this, and none greater in length and in breadth. At the back of
this bazaar, again, and not far off, is the Cavalry House (Dar al
Khail), which dates from the same early epoch. It is, at the
present day, let out to tenants, and is the place where the
cloth-makers work. The length of the Maksurah of the Com-
panions aforementioned is 44 spans, and its breadth is half its
length. Near by it on the west, in the middle of the Mosque, is
the New Maksurah which was built at the time when the half of
the original edifice, which had been a church, was incorporated
into the Mosque after the manner previously related. In this Mak-
surah is the Pulpit of the Friday-Sermon, and the Mihrab of the
public-prayers. The Mihrab of the Companions was originally
in the centre of that portion of the church which belonged to
the Muslims, and there was a wall of separation, which started
from where the Mihrab now stands in the New Maksurah.
When the whole of the church was made into a Mosque, the
Maksurah of the Companions thus came to be on one side in the
.eastern part ; while the New Maksiirah was erected in the middle
of the Mosque, where stood the wall of separation before the two
halves were united into one area. This New Maksurah is larger
than that of the Companions. Further to the west, facing
the wall, is another Maksurah. It goes by the name of Al
Hanafiyyah ; and those of the Hanafite sect assemble here for
holding their lectures, and this is their praying-place. Opposite to
it is a chapel (Zawiyafi), built all round with' lattices of wood, as
though it were a small Maksurah. On the eastern side, also, is a
second chapel of a like appearance, and resembling a Maksurah.
It was erected as a place for praying in by one of the Turkish
Amirs of the State. It lies close up against the eastern wall.
" There are in the Mosque many other similar chapels,
246 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
which the scholars (Talib) use as places wherein to sit and copy
(the Kuran) and for lectures, and for private assemblies ; and they
are among the advantages this Mosque offers to students. In the
wall of the Main-building of the Mosque, towards the court, which
is surrounded by the colonnades, there are, on the south side of
the court, twenty doors, set one beside the other in the length
thereof. The upper parts of these are ornamented in plaster that
is stamped out, even as is the work in the windows ; and the eye
beholding the row of them will deem them a most beautiful sight.
As to the colonnades that surround the Court on the other three
sides, namely, north, east, and west, these are supported on
columns, and above the columns are round arches resting on
smaller columns, and these go all round the Court. This Court
is one of the finest sights that can be seen. There is always therein
a concourse of the people of the town, for they come here to meet
and take their pleasure of conversation every eventide. You may
see them there coming and going, from east to west, from the Bab
Jairun to the Bab al Barid, walking and talking.
" The Mosque has three Minarets. One is at the (south) western
side. It is like a high tower resembling a spacious dwelling
divided into chapels. These are locked off, for the Minaret is
inhabited by Maghribin anchorites. The topmost of the chambers
was the retreat of Abu Hamid al Ghazzali Allah have mercy on
him ! and at the present day it is inhabited by a certain anchorite
called Abu 'Abd Allah. The second Minaret is on the (south)
eastern* side, and is of the same description with the last. The
third is on the northern side, rising above the gate called Bab an
Natinyyin (the Gate of the Sweetmeat-sellers). In the Court of
the Mosque are three Cupolas. The one in the western part is
the largest of the three. It stands on eight columns of marble,
and rises like a bastion, and is ornamented with mosaic, and all
kinds of coloured stones, so as to resemble a flower-garden for
beauty. Over it is a leaden dome, like a great round oven-top.
They say it was originally the Treasury of the Mosque, for be it
known the Mosque possesses great wealth, and has lands producing
various crops, the rent equalling in amount, as I have been told,
The MS. read " western '' in error.
DAMASCUS. 247
to about 8,000 Dinars Syrian per annum (^4,000), which is
15,000 Dinars Muminiyyah, or thereabouts. The second Cupola
is smaller, and stands in the middle of the Court. It is hollow
and octagonal, built of marble blocks fitted most wonderfully
together. It is supported on four small columns of marble, and
under it is a round grating of iron, in the centre of which is a
copper spout, from which pours a water -jet that first rises and then
falls again, as though it were a silver wand. The people are
accustomed to put their mouths thereto, at the side, and drink
therefrom. It is very beautiful, and is called the Water Cage
(KrfsalMa). The third Cupola stands on the eastern side. It
is supported on eight columns, like the large cupola (to the west),
but it is smaller.
" On the northern side of the Court is a great gateway leading
into a large Mosque, in the centre of which is a court. There is
here a tank of marble, large in size, and through it water is con-
tinually flowing. An octagonal basin of white marble, which
stands in the middle of the tank is supported on sculptured
columns, and the water is brought from the tank up into the basin.
This Mosque is called Al Kallasah (the Lime Furnace). * On
the eastern side of the Court (of the Great Mosque) is another
gateway leading to a most beautiful Mosque, most magnificently
planned and built, which the Shi'ahs say is the shrine (or Mash-
had) of the Khalif 'Ali ; but this is one of the most extraordinary
of their inventions.
" Another of their wonderful stories is what is related of a chapel
in the western part (of the Mosque Court). At the angle, where
the northern colonnade joins the western, is this chapel, which is
covered above by a veil, and there is a veil also in front hanging
down. They say this is the place of 'Ayishah (the wife of the
* The Kallasah was the Chalk-pit or Lime-kiln to the north of the Mosque,
originally ihe place where the lime was burnt that was used in the building.
In 555 (1160) Sultan Niir ad Din Zanki built a college on this ground, and
called the edifice Al Kallasah. It was burnt down in 570 (1174), together
with the Madhanat al 'Arus (the Minaret of the Bride) of the Great Mosque
near it. Saladin afterwards rebuilt the Kallasah. and himself was buried to the
north of the building, in a mausoleum which still exists. See Quatremere,
Sultans Mamlouks, ii. 287.
248 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Prophet), where she was wont to sit and listen to the Traditions.
Thus 'Ayishah, as well as 'Ali, is found commemorated in Damas-
cus. Now as to 'Ali, there may be some authority for the attribu-
tion, for it is reported that he was seen by a person in a dream,
praying here in the very place where the Shi'ahs have built their
shrine. But as for the place that is called after 'Ayishah, there is no
authority for it, and we have only mentioned it as being celebrated
in the descriptions of the Great Mosque. Now the Kallasah
Mosque is most beautiful, both within and without, and there are
mosaics of gold, worked as has been before described. The
building has three domes side by side. The Mihrab is one of the
winders of Islam for beauty, admirably built, and is gilded
throughout. In the centre -part of this Mosque are several smaller
Mihrabs along the wall. These are set round with little pillars of
a twisted pattern, and it is as though the twist had been made in
a turning-lathe, and nothing can be seen more beautiful. Some
are red, as though of coral. The renown of the Kiblah (Niche)
of this Mosque, and also of its domes and its windows that are
gilt, and coloured, is beyond report.
" But to return to the Great Mosque. In the eastern angle of
the New Maksurah, in the Mihrab, there is a great treasure-
chamber, in which is kept one of the copies (of the Kuran) that
belonged to the Khalif 'Othman. This is the copy that was sent
into Syria (to Mu'awiyah, at the time of 'Othman's murder). This
treasury is opened every day at prayer-time, and the people gain a
blessing by touching the book, and by looking at it, and many go
there so to do.
" Now the Great Mosque has four gates. The southern gate is
called Bab az Ziyadah (the Gate of the Addition).* There is a
great hall, broad, and with mighty columns leading from it. In
this are the shops of the bead-sellers, and the like trades, and it is
a fine sight to see. From it you go into the Dar al Kh^il (the
old Cavalry House aforementioned) ; and on the left, as you go
out through this gate, is the Bazaar of the Coppersmiths. In the
old time this was the Palace of the Khalif Mu'awiyah, and was
called Al Khadra (the Green Palace). The eastern gate of the
* As at present, see p. 231,
DAMASCUS. 249
Mosque is the largest of all the gates, and is called the Bab Jairun.
The western gate is called the Bab al Barid (the Gate of the
Post). The northern gate is called the Bab an Natifiyyin (the
( kite of the Sweetmeat-sellers). To east and to west and to north
of these gates are broad halls, and each of these leads to one
of the great gateways which were (in ancient times) the entrances
into the church, and these halls remain standing even to this
present day.
" The finest of these halls is that which adjoins the Bab Jairun
(or eastern gate of the Mosque). You go out from this gate into
a long and broad portico, in the front part of which are five door-
ways, arched over, and there are six tall columns here. To the
left hand of this is a large and finely-built oratory (Mash-hacl) in
which was kept the head of Al Husain, before it was transported
to Cairo. Opposite to this is a small mosque called after the
Khalif 'Omar ibn Abd al 'Aziz. In the oratory there is running
water. In front of the portico (of the Bab Jairun) are steps
whereby you go down to the hall. This last is like a great fosse,
and leads to a gateway of mighty elevation, with sides unwalled,
but set all round with columns that are like palms for height, and
like mountains for firmness. On either side of this hall are set
columns, among which are the rows of shops occupied by the
perfumers and the like. Up above is a second row of shops and
chambers for letting, and from these you can look down into the
hall. All round and about, above this, is the terrace roof, where
the occupiers of the chambers and the shops pass the night (in the
summer- heats). In the centre of the hall is a large tank rimmed
round with marble ; and over it is a dome that is supported on
marble columns. Round this dome, up above, is a border of lead
that is very broad, and the dome is open to the sky. In the
middle of the marble tank below, is a spout of brass which throws
up water with great force, and it rises into the air for a man's
height or more. All round it are smaller spouts which throw up
water also, so that the whole looks like the branches of a silver
tree, and is most beautiful to watch.
"On your right hand, coming out of the Bab Jairun, in the wall
of the portico fronting you, is a gallery, which has the form of a
250 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
great archway, and set round it are arches of brass, in which open
small doors, in number according to the number of the hours of
the day. Through the working of a piece of mechanism, when
one hour of the day is passed, there fall two weights of brass from
the mouths of two falcons fashioned in brass, who stand above
two brazen cups, set one under each of the birds. One of the
falcons is below the first of the doors, and the second below the
last of them. Now the cups are perforated, and as soon as the
balls have fallen, they run back through a hole in the wall
to the gallery. The falcons appear to extend their necks
when holding the balls, leaning towards the cups, and to throw
the balls off with a quick motion, so wondrous to see that one
would' imagine it was magic. With the falling of the two balls
into the two cups, there is heard a sound (as of striking) a bell ;
and thereupon the doorway, which pertains to the hour that has
elapsed, is shut with a brass door. A similar action goes on for
each of the hours of the day ; and when all the hours of the day
are passed, all the doors are shut. When all the (day) hours are
passed, the mechanism returns to its first condition. For the
hours of the night tkey have another mechanism. It is this in
the bow of the great arch, which goes over the (small) arches
(with the doors), just mentioned, are twelve circles cut out in the
brass, and over each of these openings, in the wall of the gallery,
is set a plate of glass. This is all so arranged as to lie behind the
doors (for the day-hours) above mentioned. Behind each glass is
a lamp-glass, in which is water set to run for the space of one hour.
When the hour is past, the light of the lamp, coming down,
illumines the glass, and the rays shine out of the round opening
in front of it, and it appears to the sight as a red circle. This
same happens to each circle in turn, till all the hours of the night
are passed, and then all the circles have red light in them. There
are eleven workmen (belonging to the Mosque) who attend to this
gallery, and keep the mechanism in order, and see to the opening
of the doors, and the running back of the weights into their proper
places. This (piece of mechanism) is what the people call Al
Mikaniyyah.*
* The reading of the word is uncertain, it is probably an Arabic corruption
'//, a machine.
DAMASCUS. 251
" The hall that is before the Western Gate (of the Mosque,
called Bab al Barid) has in it the shops of the greengrocers and
perfume-sellers, and there is here the market where they sell
flowers. At its upper end is a great gate, to which, you ascend
by steps, and it has columns that rise high in the air. Below the
steps are two water-tanks, round in shape, one lying to the right and
one to the left. Each water-tank has five spouts which pour the
water into a long trough made of marble. The hall at the North
Gate (of the Mosque, called Bab an Natifiyyin) has in it a chapel
(Zawiya/i) that stands on a platform, which is set round with a
wooden lattice, and it serves as a house for the school-teachers.
To the right, in going out of the hall, is a Cloister (KhanikaJi)
built for the Sufis. In its midst is a cistern. They say this
Cloister was of old the palace of the Khalif 'Omar ibn 'Abd al
Aziz ; but we shall return to this matter later. The cistern in the
centre of the Cloister has water running through it, and there are
here latrines with running water in the cells. On the right hand
as you go out (of the Great Mosque, by) the Bab al Barid, is the
Madrasah of the Shafi'ites. In its centre is also a cistern with
water running therein, and there are likewise latrines here, with
water running through them as above described. In the court
(of the Great Mosque), between the cupolas aforementioned, are
two columns set some distance apart, and on both are stands of
brass of considerable height, and made of lattice-work, cut out in
the most beautiful manner. These are lighted up on the middle
night of the month of Sha'ban, and they shine as though they
were the two Pleiads. The concourse of the people of the city
here on the above-named night is even greater than is seen here
on the night at the close of the fast-month of Ramadan.
" There are round the Mosque four water-tanks, one on each
side, and each water-tank is like a great palace set round with
chambers for latrines, with water running in each. In the length
of the court there is also a tank of stone, and down all its length
are a number of spouts (for the ablution). One of the water-tanks
aforesaid is in the hall of the Bab Jairun, and it is the largest of
the four, and there are here over thirty chambers (for the ablu-
tion). And besides this great tank there are here two large
252 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
cisterns, one lying at a distance from the other, and the circum-
ference of each is about forty spans, with the water spouting in
each. The second great tank is in the hall of the Bab an Nati-
fiyyin, opposite the school. The third is on your left as you go
out of the Bab al Barid ; and the fourth on your right going out
of the Bab az Ziyadah. These are all of great convenience to
strangers. Further, in all parts of the city are found water-tanks
in all the streets and bazaars for the convenience of all comers.
Of the oratories and monuments of Damascus is the shrine of
the Head of John (the Baptist), the son of Zakariyyah. The
head is buried in the Mosque in the south aisle, facing the right-
hand corner of the Maksurah of the Companions. There is over
it an ark of wood, set round with columns, and above hangs a
lamp of crystal, concave in shape, like the lid of a pot. It is not
known whether this is of 'Irak, or of Tyrian glass, or perchance it
is of some other ware.
" Among other celebrated sanctuaries of Damascus is the birth-
place of Ibrahim (Abraham). This is shown on the hillside of
Jabal Kasiyun at a village called Barzah. Barzah is a fine village,
and the mountain is a blessed one from all time, for the prophets
have all ascended it to pray thereon. Jabal Kasiyun lies to the
north of the city, and about a league distant. The birthplace (of
Abraham) is a cave, long and narrow, and they have built a
mosque and a high minaret over it. Abraham used to view the
stars from the cave, also the sun and the moon, as is mentioned in
the Kuran (chapter vi., verses 76-78). There are seventy thousand
prophets buried here, and the burial-grounds lie all round. In
Jabal Kasiyun, and lying west about a mile or more from the cave
of the birthplace (of Abraham), is a cave called the Cave of Blood,
because above it in the mountain is seen the blood of Abil (Abel),
whom his brother Kabil (Cain) slew. The mark of the blood
comes down through half the mountain as a red streak, and looks
like a road in the hillside. There is a mosque here. This is the
place from which Kabil went and sought his brother to slay him,
and afterwards he carried his body into the cave. Here, it is
said, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Lot, Job, and the Prophet
(Muhammad) all made their prayers. There is a fine mosque
DAMASCUS. 253
built over this place, to which you ascend by steps. It is like a
round gallery, and a trellis-work of wood goes round it, and there
are chambers here for visitors to sojourn in. It is opened every
Thursday, and lighted up, as also is the cave below. On the
summit of the mountain is a cave called after Adam, and there is
a building here too. Down at the foot of the mountain is the
cave called the Cave of Famine, for seventy prophets died there
of hunger. They had one loaf among them, and they kept passing
it from one to another, none eating of it. A mosque is built over
this place.
" At the summit of the mountain, and above all the gardens, and
lying west of the city, is the hill mentioned in the Kuran (chapter
xxiii., verse 52) as the place where the Messiah dwelt with His
mother. It is one of the most beautiful of places. It resembles
a high castle ; you ascend to it by steps. The dwelling-place (of
the Virgin) is a small cave like a little chamber. Opposite is the
place, as it is said, where Al Khidr (Elias) prayed. It has small
iron gates ; also a mosque built near by, and a tank most beauti-
ful to behold with the water pouring down into it. The water
falls over a water-wheel placed in the wall, and flows into a fine
marble basin below. Behind it are latrines with running water.
This hill lies above the gardens before mentioned, through which
the water therefrom runs, forming brooks. The water divides
into seven streams, each going its own way ; the largest of these
is called Thaura. It rises above the hill, and has 'made a channel
in the hard rock, forcing its way through a place like a tunnel. A
strong swimmer can plunge in above, and come out below, swim-
ming right under the hill. To do this, however, is very dangerous.
These gardens below the hill lie in the lands to the west of the
city, and they are most beautiful to see. To the west of the city,
also, is a cemetery, where many celebrated people are buried of
the Companions of the Prophet and others. The Mash-had called
after 'Ali is here.
" The Tombs of the Khalifs of the Omayyads are said to be
those lying opposite (the city gate called) the Bab as Saghir, close
to the cemetery aforementioned. There is over them at the
present day a building which is used for travellers to sojourn in.
254 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Among the celebrated Oratories, also, is the Masjid al Akdam
(the Mosque of the Footprints). It lies at a distance of two
miles from the city, and to the south, beside of the high-road
going down to the Hijjaz and Egypt. In this Mosque is a small
chamber in which is an inscription, stating that a certain one of
the Companions saw in sleep the Prophet, who told him that this
was the tomb of the brother of Moses. A hillock of red sand
may be seen on the high-road not far from this place, and it lies
between (the villages of) Ghaliyah and Ghuwailiyah. The people
say the light never fades from this blessed place, where is the
tomb aforesaid. Now, as to the Footprints, they are on a stone in
the road, with a sign-post pointing thereto, and you find a foot-
mark on each stone. The number of these Footprints is nine.
They are said to be the marks of Moses' feet ; but Allah alone
knows the truth of this.
"Damascus city has eight gates: i. Bab Sharki, the Eastern
Gate. It has beside it the White Minaret (or tower), on which they
say Jesus peace be on Him ! will descend when He comes in
glory ; for He will descend at the White Tower (or minaret) to
the east of Damascus. 2. Bab Turna (Gate of St. Thomas), next
the former. It also opens in the eastern quarter. 3. Bab as
Salamah, next thereto. 4. Bab al Faradis, to the north. 5. Bab
al Faraj, next thereto. 6. Bab an Nasr, to the west. 7. Bab al
Jabiyah, likewise to the west. 8. Bab as Saghir, opening to the
south-west. The Great Mosque of Damascus lies somewhat in
the northern part of the city. The various quarters lie all round,
and are of great extent, except in the north, and in what lies to
the south, where the houses cover a smaller area. The town has
a long shape ; its streets are narrow and dark. The houses are
built of mud and reeds, one story above another, for which
reason fire catches them swiftly. They are all three stories high,
and this is necessitated by the great number of the population ;
for there are amassed here in Damascus the inhabitants of three
towns, and it is the most populous city in the world. Its beauty
is all external, not internal. There is in the city a church belong-
ing to the Greeks, and by them greatly venerated. It is called
the Church of Mary (Kanisah Maryam), and, except the (Church
DAMASCUS. 255
at) Jerusalem, there is none other held in such esteem by them.
It is finely built, and contains many wonderful pictures. The
place is in the possession of the Greeks, and no one molests them
therein.
" Damascus has about twenty Madrasahs (colleges), and there
are here two hospitals (or Maristans) the old and the new. The
new is the larger and better built of the two. It has revenues
amounting to about 15 Dinars (^7 los.) a day. There are
physicians to attend the sick, and the expenses of food and
medicines are provided. The old Maristan is on a like footing,
but more people go to the new. The old Maristan is situated to
the west of the Mosque. One of the finest colleges in the world
is the Madrasah of Nur ad Din Allah's mercy be on him ! In
it is his tomb may Allah illumine it ! It is a palace among
palaces. Water runs through it, and falls into a tank. There are
also in the city many cloisters belonging to the Sufis. The
greatest that we saw is that known as Al Kasr, very high built,
and beautiful. Damascus possesses a castle (Kal'ah) where the
Sultan lives, and it stands isolated in the modern quarter of the
city. It is close over against the gate called Bab al Faraj, and
in it is the Sultan's Mosque. Near the castle, outside the
town towards the west, are two Maidans (horse-courses) that are
like pieces of silk-brocade rolled out, for their greenness and
beauty. The river flows between the two Maidans, and there is
a grove of poplar-trees extending beside them most beautiful to
behold. The Sultan is wont to go out there to play the game of
Mall (As Sawalijah\ and to race his horses ; and nothing can be
pleasanter to see than this. Every evening the Sultan's sons go
out there to shoot with the bow, and to race, and to play Mall.
In Damascus, too, are nearly one hundred Hammam's (hot-baths),
both in the city and in the suburbs ; and there are nearly forty
houses for ablution where water always flows ; and nowhere is
there any town more convenient to the stranger.
"The markets of Damascus are the finest in the world,
and the best organized. Especially so are the Kaisariyyahs,*
* The word Kais&riyyah denotes a bazaar for merchants, or a building, like
a Caravanserai for the storing of merchandise. It is derived from the Greek
256 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
which are built high like hospices, and closed by iron gates like the
gates of a castle. Each Kaisariyyah stands isolated, and at night
it is shut off. There is also a market called the Great Market,
which extends from the Bab al Jabiyah to the Bab ash Sharki (all
along the Straight Street). There is here a small house that has
become a place for prayer. In the south part of it is a stone on
which they say Abraham broke the idols which his father had
brought to market to sell. The Palace of the Khalif 'Omar ibn
'Abd al 'Aziz is to-day a Cloister for the Sufis. It stands near
the Hall of the North Gate (of the Great Mosque), called Bab
an Natinyyin. 'Omar bought the ground, and built the palace,
and ordered that he should be buried in it, and that they should
recite prayers there.
"And now as regards the ascent to the top of the Dome of
the Great Mosque, which rises erect in the midst of the building.
Verily the entrance to the same, and into the interior where is the
inner dome like a sphere within a larger sphere is from the
Mosque. We ascended thereto, with a number of friends, at early
dawn, on Monday, the i8th day of the First Jumadi. We went up
by a ladder in the western colonnade that goes round the court,
at a place where had been a tower in former days, and walked
over the flat roof of the Mosque. The roof is covered with large
' sheets of lead (as aforementioned), the length of each sheet being
4 spans, and the width 3 spans. After passing over the flat roof
we came to the Dome, and mounted into it by a ladder set there ;
and doing so it almost happened that we had all been seized with
dizziness. We went into the round gangway, which is of lead,
and its width is but of 6 spans, so that we could not stand there,
fearing to fall over. Then w r e hastened on to the entrance into
the interior of the Dome, passing through one of the grated
windows which open in the lead-work ; and before us was a
wondrous sight. We passed on over the planking of great wood
beams which go all round the inner and smaller dome, which is
Kcttaapfia, in the sense of the Coesarian (market) ; and the word was only in
use in those Arab countries which were of old subject to the Byzantines, ,?..,
Syria, Egypt, and Morocco. In the further East Baghdad and Persia the
term was not employed.
DAMASCUS. 257
inside the outer I .caclcn Dome, as aforesaid, and there are here two
arched windows, through which you look down into the Mosque
below. From here the men who are down in the Mosque look as
though they were small children. This dome is round like a sphere,
and its structure is made of planks, strengthened with stout ribs of
wood, bound with bands of iron. The ribs curve over the dome,
and meet at the summit in a round circle of wood. The inner
dome, which is that seen from the interior of the 'Mosque, is
inlaid with wooden panels, set one beside the other, touching.
They are all gilt in the most beautiful manner, and ornamented
with colour and carving. Of these wooden panels which cover
the interior of the dome, the length of each is not less than
6 spans, with a breadth of 4 spans ; but to the eye below they
twinkle like points, and seem to be only one or two spans across,
on account of their great height from you. The Great Leaden
Dome covers this inner dome that has just been described.
It also is strengthened by wooden ribs bound with iron bands.
The number of these ribs is forty-eight, and between each rib is a
space of 4 spans : the whole most wonderfully arranged. The
ribs converge above, and unite in a centrepiece of wood. The
circumference of the Leaden Dome is 80 paces, which is
260 spans. Under the Double Dome is the aisle called the
Eagle (An Nasr), stretching out, and roofed over, leading towards
the Maksurah. This part is all ceiled over, and ornamented
with plaster-work, with numberless wooden teams, let in, and
with the arches below. The piers supporting the Double Dome
are let into the walls. And in these walls are stones, each of
which weighs a full Kantar (or about 325 Ibs.), and these elephants
could not move. Most wonderful is it how they were raised to
their present high place, and this by human power only, and how
man's strength was capable thereof. The Great Double Dome
rests on a circular base built of mighty blocks, above which rise
short and thick pilasters built up of large stones of a very hard
kind ; and between every two pilasters is pierced a window.
Thus the windows extend all round the circle under the dome.
This Double Dome appears like one dome to the eye from below;
for the one is inside the other, and the outer dome only is of lead.
17
258 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Of the wonders of the place it is that we saw no spiders in the
framework of the domes, and they say there are none here at all.
Also no birds of the species of swallows ever enter the Mosque.
This Dome of the Damascus Mosque is the finest in the world,
except, maybe, the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem, which is said
to be the most beautiful." (I. J., 262-297.) Ibn Jubair did not,
unfortunately, visit Jerusalem.
Yakut, writing in. 1225, devotes many pages of his great Geo-
graphical Dictionary to the subject of Damascus. Besides the
chief article, there are numberless minor notices scattered up and
down the voluminous work, wherever, in the alphabetical arrange-
ment, mention occurs of some one of the Damascus mosques or
gates or other monuments. Much that is mentioned is copied
from earlier geographers, what is new matter is epitomized in the
following pages :
" Damascus," says Yakut, " called Dimishk, or Dimashk, is the
capital of Syria, and it is the Garden of the Earth. The city
was, some say, so called because it was said Diniashkti, ' they
hastened,' in its building. I )amascus is sometimes referred to in
poetry by the name Jillik. According to some this is the name of
all the districts taken together of the Ghautah. According to
others, Jillik is the name of a certain village in the Ghautah,
where, it is said, there was the statue of a woman, from which
water poured forth; or else again Jillik is the City of Damascus
itself." (Yak., ii. 104; Mar., i. 261.)
" Damascus was founded by Dimashik, son of Kani, great-grand-
son of Sam (Shem), son of Nun, or some say by Buyutasf. It was
founded at the end of the year 3145 of the Creation. The age of
the world is, they say, to be of 7,000 years. Abraham the Friend,
was born five years after its founding. Others say Damascus
was built by Jairun ibn Sa'ad ibn 'Ad, grandson of Shem, who
called it Iram dhat al 'Amud (Irani of the Columns). The pro-
phet Hud dwelt here, and he built the wall to the south of the
Jami' Mosque. Another tradition is that Al 'Azar, Abraham's
servant, built Damascus. By another tradition Dimashik, Filastin
(Palestine), Ailiya (^Elia, Jerusalem), Hims and Al Urdunn (the
Jordan), were all sons of Iram, son of Shem, son of Noah.
DAMASCUS. 259
" Adam, they say, lived at Bait Anat, and Eve at Bait Libya ;
Abel (Hcibil) at Mukra with his flocks, and Cain (Kabil) at Kaninah
in the midst of his fields. All these places lie round Damascus.
At the place in the Jami' Mosque, now occupied by the gate called
the Bab as Sa'at, is a large stone, whereon in ancient days Cain
and Abel laid their offerings. If these were accepted (of the Lord)
fire was wont to descend to consume them, but if they were not
acceptable (the offerings) remained untouched. Now Abel had
come with a fat ram of his flock, and he placed it on the stone,
and the fire came down and burnt it up. Then came Cain, with
wheat of his crops, and placed it also on the stone, but it remained
in its (unburnt) condition. So Cain envied his brother, and he
followed him to the mountain, which overlooks the plain of
Damascus, and is now known as Jabal Kasiyun ; and he wished
to slay him, but did not know how to accomplish the deed. Then
Iblis (Satan) came to him, and took up a stone and began to
strike his head therewith. And when (Cain) saw this, he took a
stone and struck therewith the head of his brother Abel, and thus
slew him there on Jabal Kasiyun. I, Yakut, have seen there a
stone on which was a mark like blood, and the people of Syria say
that this is the stone with which Cain slew Abel, and that this red
mark that is on it is the mark/of Abel's blood. In front of the
stone is a cave, which is good to visit. It is called the Cave of
the Blood from this reason ; and I, myself, have made visitation
there, on the slope of the mountain called Jabal Kasiyun. Ac-
cording to some, Damascus was the site of Noah's dwelling-place,
and he took the wood for the ark from the Lebanon Mountains.
Further, he entered into the ark at the place called 'Ain al Jarr, of
the Bika' District. Some say that Abraham, too, was born at a
village in the Ghautah of Damascus, called Barzah, lying in the
Jabal Kasiyun. According to a tradition of the Prophet, Jesus
peace be on Him ! will descend (on the Last Day) upon the
White Minaret to the east of Damascus, which is in the Mosque
beside the Eastern Gate, called Bab ash Sharki.
" Wonderful is the water-supply of Damascus, and the public
fountains are innumerable. The suburbs without the walls are
equal to the town itself in extent. Damascus was first conquered
172
260 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
in the month Rajab of the year 14. Khalid stormed through the
Eastern Gate, and met Abu 'Ubaidah, who had made a capitula-
tion with the inhabitants, and had entered the city in company
with the other commanders through the three Western Gates of
the city. The Mosque of Damascus verily is the most beautiful
building in the world. It was built by the Khalif al Walid ibn
'Abd al Malik, who was much addicted to the building of mosques.
The building was begun in the year 87, or 88 as some say. Now,
when it was Al Walid's intention to build it, the Khalif brought
together the Christians of Damascus, and said to them, * We wish
to increase our Mosque by your Church, that is to say, the Church
of Yuhanna (John), and we will give you another church where-
soever ye will ; or if ye will, we will double you what would be the
price of the land.' But the Christians refused, and they brought
the Treaty of Khalid ibn al Walid, and the promise (he had given
them). And they said further : * Verily, we have found in our
books that if any demolish this (Church) he shall choke to death. 7
Then cried out Al Walid unto them : ' I am he who will be the
first to demolish it !' And standing up, he began to demolish the
yellow cupola which was above the place where he sat, and the
Muslims round him did the like. Thus the Khalif increased the
size of the Mosque as he had desired. And so much material
was gathered together for the building that it was impossible to
use it all, and the expenditure of monies was thus lightened unto
him. The Khalif al Walid built four gates to the Mosque. To
its east, Bab Jairun ; to its west, Bab al Barid ; to its south, Bab
az Ziyadah ; with the Bab an Natifaniyyin (or Gate of the Syrup-
sellers) lying opposite thereto. And the Bab al Faradis (the Gate
of the Gardens) was in the hinder part to the south.
" Ghaith ibn 'Ali al Atmanazi relates that Al Walid ordered
them to search down in the fosse for the ancient foundation of the
walls of the original building. And while they were digging they
discovered a wall of masonry running in the direction of the fosse
and along it. They reported to Al Walid of this, and informed
him of the solidity of the masonry of this wall, asking for permis-
sion to build (the Mosque wall) upon it. But the Khalif answered :
' I should agree thereto were I indeed assured in the matter of the
DAMASCUS. 261
solidity thereof, and of the firmness of its foundations ; only I
cannot be convinced of the solidity of this wall until ye have dug
down along its face till ye reach moisture. If then it be found still
firmly based, I am content that ye build on it, otherwise leave it
side.' So they dug on down along the face of the wall, and found
a gate, over which was a slab of granite, on which was cut an
inscription. Every endeavour was made to get this read, till one
was found who told them that the writing was in the Greek tongue.
Now the interpretation of this inscription, which was on the face
of the (slab) was as follows :
" After the world hath renewed its youth, the signs having been
manifested of what is to come to pass, it is necessary there be a
renewal thereof ; even as have foretold those aged in life and stricken
in years. And the ivorship of the Creator of created things shall be
instituted here, w \en the lover of hcrses commands the building of
this Temple of his own monies ; and this shall be after the passing
of seven thousand and nine hundred years since the days of the
People of the Column. And if the builder live to enter therein,
the building will be named as the best of acts. And so to ye all,
Peace !
" Now the ' People of the Columns ' (Ahl al Ustuwan) were a
sect of the ancient philosophers who lived of old at Ba'albakk.
"They relate that Al Walid spent on the building (of the
Mosque) the revenues of the Empire for seven years. And when
they brought him the accounts of what had been spent on it,
carried on the backs of ten camels, he ordered that all should be
burnt, and would not look at any of them, saying : ' These sums
we have laid out for Allah's sake, and verily we will not take any
count of them.' Of the wonders of the Mosque it may be told
that if a man were to sojourn here a hundred years, and pondered
each day on what he saw, he would see every day something he
had not seen in former days, namely, of the beauty of the work-
manship and choice things set here. They relate that the total of
the price of the cabbages that the workmen ate (during the building)
was 6,000 Dinars (^3,000). Now at one time the people
murmured at the great sums that the Khalif expended, saying
that he had taken the public treasure of the Muslims, and had
262 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
spent it on what was not worthy of the spending. Then the
Khalif went into the pulpit of the Mosque, and spake to them,
saying, ' It hath come to me that ye say so and such things ; now
verily in your Treasury there is a sum equivalent to eighteen years'
revenue, to which ye have none of you contributed a single grain of
corn.' And the people kept silence hereafter, and said naught. It is
said the work lasted nine years, and that during this time 10,000
men worked daily at the cutting of marble. There were (in the
Mosque) 600 chains of gold. When the whole was finished Al
Walid ordered that it should be roofed with lead. And they
brought lead from all lands to accomplish this, but at the last a
piece (of the roofing) remained, for which they could find no lead,
except some that belonged to a certain woman, and she refused to
sell it except for its weight in gold. And the Khalif commanded
them to buy it of her, even though it were (at the price of) double
the weight in gold. And they did so. But when she was to
receive the price, she said : ' Verily I had imagined our master
was a tyrant in accomplishing this, his building ; but now I have
seen his justice, and I bear witness to you before Allah of the
same.' And she returned to them the price. When Al Walid
knew of this he commanded that they should inscribe on the (lead)
plates which she had given, the words, * This belongs to Allah?
ordering further that they should not set them among those that
bore his name. It is said they spent on the ornament of the
Vine, that is on the Kiblah side of the Mosque, 70,000 Dinars
" Musa ibn Hammad al Barbari relates that he saw in the
Mosque of Damascus an inscription in gold on the glass (of the
window), where was written the Chapter (cii. of the Kuran),
being the words, ' The desire of increasing riches occupieth you,
till ye come to the grave,' will) the verses that follow down to the
end of the chapter. And he saw a red jewel that was set in the
letter K that formed part of the word Al MakCibir (' the grave '),
one of the words of that verse of the Kuran, and he inquired the
reason thereof. It was told him that Al Walid had a daughter
to whom this jewel had belonged, and that when she died,
her mother had ordered that this jewel should be buried with
DAMASCUS. 263
her in her grave. But the Khalif gave command on the matter,
and they set it in the K of the word Makdbir of the verse afore-
said. And he afterwards assured the girl's mother that he had set
it in ' the grave,' and she was confounded and silent when she saw
what had been done. A certain writer of past times states that
the Mosque was originally built with two rows, of marble columns,
one above the other, the lower row being large columns, and
those above being smaller ; and the space between the two rows
was filled by pictures representing every town and tree in the
world in Mosaic of gold and green and yellow. Over the Kiblah
side of the Mosque is the dome called Kubbat an Nasr (the Eagle's
Dome), and there is nothing in all Damascus finer or higher than
the sight to be obtained from it. Now the Mosque of Damascus
continued in the splendour and magnificence we have described
until there befell the fire of the year 461 (1069), when much of its
beauty was destroyed.
"Of old times, when 'Omar ibn 'Abd al Aziz came to the
Khalifate (in the year 717 A.D.), he said: 'I consider the wealth
that is in the Mosque at Damascus to be of excess, and if it were
expended on other matters it would be more fitting. Verily, that
which may be spared should be taken and returned to the public
treasury. And I will strip off these marbles and mosaics, and I
will take away these chains, setting in their stead ropes.' Now the
people of Damascus were greatly perturbed thereat ; and at this
same time it so happened that there arrived at Damascus ten
ambassadors from the king of the Greeks, and they begged per-
mission to enter and visit the Mosque. Permission was granted
them to enter by the Bab al Barid, and a certain attendant was
sent to accompany them who knew their tongue, in order to listen
to their words, and report what they should say to 'Omar, they
knowing nothing thereof. The envoys passed through the court
until they came in front of the Kiblah, and they raised their eyes
to look at the Mosque. Then their chief began to hang his head,
and his colour became yellow, and when his companions inquired
of him the reason, he replied, ' Verily, I had told the assemblies
of the people of Rumiyyah (Byzantium) that the Arabs and their
power would remain but a brief space ; but now, when I see what
264 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
they have built, I know that of a surety their (dominion) will
reach to length of days.' When 'Omar heard report of this, he
said, * I now perceive that this your Mosque is a source of rage
to the infidels,' and he desisted from doing what he had intended
therein. And 'Omar had before this studded the Mihrab with
jewels of great price, and he afterwards hung up here lamps both
of gold and of silver.
" In the Jami' Mosque is the chapel (Zawiyah) of Al Khidr
(Elias). There is also preserved here the head of Yahya ibn
Zakariyya (John the Baptist), also the Kuran of 'Othman the
Khalif. According to some, the Prophet HCid is buried here;
but of this there is question. Under the great dome of the
Kubbat an Nasr are two columns of variegated-coloured marble,
which they say are of the Tabernacle of Bilkis (Queen of
Sheba) ; but Allah alone knows best the truth. The western
minaret of the Mosque is that where Al Ghazzali (the great theo-
logian) used to pray. They say this minaret was of old a fire-
temple, and that a flame of fire rose from it into the air. The
ancient people of the Hauran made their worship here. The
eastern minaret is called Al Manarah al Baida (the White Minaret),
and upon it they say that Jesus, Son of Mary peace be upon
Him ! will descend (at the Judgment Day).* There is shown
here a stone which they say is a fragment of the rock which Moses
struck, and from which there flowed forth twelve springs. They
relate further, that the minaret on which Jesus peace be upon
Him ! will descend is that which stands near the Kanisah
Maryam (Mary Church) at Damascus. In the (court of the)
Mosque, the western cupola, known as the Treasury, is, they say,
the tomb of 'Ayishah (the wife of the Prophet) ; but her tomb is
in reality at the Baki' Cemetery (at Al Madinah). At the south
gate of the Jami', called the Bab az Ziyadah, is hung up a piece
of a lance, said to have been that of Khalid ibn Al Walid. At
Damascus, also, are the tombs of Mahmud ibn Zanki ; also of
Saladin, namely, in the Kallasah Mosque near the Jami' (besides
many others too numerous to mention)." (Yak., ii. 587-597.)
The story of the complaint laid before the Khalif 'Omar ibn
* The same tradition is given of the mir.aret at the eastern city-gate. See
pp. 254, 259.
DAMASCUS. 265
'Abel al 'Aziz by the Christians of Damascus (see above, p. 260)
is somewhat differently related in the Chronicle of Ibn al Athir.
He writes :
" When 'Omar ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz came to be Khalif, the Chris-
tians complained to him of the wrong done to them ; but the
Khalif retorted on them, ' Most certainly what lay outside the city
was taken by assault, and yet we gave back to you one of your
churches there. We will, therefore, now destroy the church of
Tuma (St. Thomas), for was it not taken by assault ? and we will
turn it into a mosque.' Then the Christians answered him, * Nay,
rather in fear of this, we give up to thee the great Mosque, and do
thou leave us in peaceful possession of the church of Tuma.' "
(Ibn al Athir, v. 5.)
Dimashki, writing about the year 1300, has the following :
" Damascus is called also Jillik and Al Khadra (the green), and
Dhat al 'Amud (the Columned). The mosque here is one of the
wonders of the world. On the middle night of the month of
Sha'aban they light in it twelve thousand lamps, and burn fifty
Damascus Kintars-weight of olive-oil, and this not counting what
is consumed in the other edifices, such as the colleges, mosques,
tombs, convents, cloisters, and hospitals. The walls of the
Mosque are faced with marble after the most exquisite manner
ever seen, and above are mosaics in coloured glass and gold and
silver. The length of the Mosque from east to west is 282 ells,
and the width is 220 (or 210) ells. The roof is covered with
sheets of lead. Damascus consists in reality of three towns.
First there come the palaces, gardens, and orchards in the Ghutah,
sufficient to form a large town by themselves ; then, second, are
the underground water-courses ; and third, the houses of the city
itself. The gardens of Damascus number one hundred and
twenty-one thousand ; all are watered by a single river which
comes down from the country near Az Zabadani, and the Wadi
Barada. The springs coming down from the heights above the
Wadi and the waters from the 'Ain al Fijah come together and
form a single river called the Barada, which below divides into
seven streams, each called by its own name.
"The first is the Nahr Yazid, which was dug by the Khalif
266 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Yazid ibn Mu'awiyah, and called after him. The second is the
Nahr Thaurah, which was dug by one of the kings of the Greeks
of that name. The third is the Nahr Balniyas (or Banas), dug by
Balniyas (Pliny) the Greek philosopher, and called after him.
The fourth is the Nahr al Kanawat (of the Water-conduits).
These last two flow to the outer districts of the city, and there
divide up into small water-courses and underground channels
serving the baths and places for ablution. The fifth is the Nahr
Mizzah, being called after the village of Al Mizzah, which is also
called Al Manazzah (meaning the Pure), on account of the salubrity
of its climate, the purity of its water, the beauty of its palaces,
the excellence of its fruits, and the abundance of its roses and
other flowers. It is here they make the celebrated rose-water of
Damascus; and this rose-water of Al Mizzah is exported to all
the countries of the South, such as the Hijjaz, and beyond to
India and China. As an example of the price this rose-water
fetches in the market, it is reported that the chief Kadi of the
Hanifites, with his brother Al Hariri, possessed a plot of land
called Shaur az Zahr (the Flower-garland) measuring no paces by
75, and they sold of its crop 20 Kintars-weight (of rose-leaves) for
22,000 Dirhams (or about 6,500 Ibs. for ^"880) in the year 665
(1267) ; but nothing equal to this has been heard of since.
" The sixth river is the Nahr Darayya ; its upper course is an
affluent (of the Baradaj, and below, it divides (from the Barada
again). Darayya is a village with very rich crops and lands.
There are here the tombs of Abu Muslim al Khaulani, and of
Abu Sulaiman ad Darani. The seventh river is the Barada itself,
the main stream of which runs down the bed of the Wadi. It
receives affluents in its upper course, and below there branch from
it all the six abovementioned rivers ; and these rivers again
divide up into channels and water-courses that irrigate all the
lands of the Ghutah, so that there is no part of its territory where
the water does not attain. The irrigation continues night and
day, and according to fixed measures and lines, and the volume
of water neither increases nor decreases. The main stream of
the Barada continues on eastward of the city, watering villages
and domains and lands, both fertile and barren, till it ultimately
DAMASCUS. 267
falls into the lake to the east of Damascus in the district of
'Adhra, in which are many reeds. Another river (of Damascus)
is called Al A'waj, and it also falls into this same lake. It
becomes a large river at the time of the melting of the snows,
when many small streams join it." (Dim., 193-198.)
Abu-1 Fida, writing a few years after Dimashki, gives the follow-
ing description of the lake lying to the east of Damascus, into
which the rivers drain :
"Buhairah Dimashk (the lake of Damascus) lies to the west,
or rather north-west, of the city in the Ghautah ; the overflow of
the Barada, and of the other streams, falls into it. In the winter
this lake spreads out, so that the people (on its banks) have no
need to use the irrigation-canals ; in the summer the waters shrink
up. It has lowlands full of reeds, which form a useful and cele-
brated hiding-place from the enemy." (A. F. 40.)
The same author continues : " Muhallabi says that he found on
one of the pillars of the Mosque at Damascus an inscription,
which set forth the following : Damaskiytis built this House to the
God of Gods Ziyush. And he adds, Damaskiyus is the name of
the king who built the city, and Ziyush (Zeus) is translated into
Arabic by Al Mushtari (Jupiter)." (A. F., 230.)
The traveller Ibn Batutah spent some months in Damascus
during the year 1326. He gives in his Diary a long description
of the city and its chief monuments, inserting copious quotations
from Ibn Jubair and previous writers. The more important
passages only are here translated, and these show us what the
Mosque was in the fourteenth century, just before its destruction
by fire at the time of Timur's conquest :
"The Mosque of Damascus was first built by Al Walid ibn
'Abd al Malik, and artificers were sent from the King of Ar Rum
for the purpose. Originally it was a church, which the Muslims
took from the Christians by force. The Mosque was ornamented
with mosaics in gold, and in various colours, called Fusaifasah.
The length of the Mosque from east to west is 200 paces, which
is 300 ells ; its width from the Kiblah to the north side is
135 paces, or 200 ells. Of windows of coloured glass there are
to the number of seventy-four to be seen. The Main-building of
268 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
the Mosque consists of three naves, going from east to west, and
the width of each nave is 18 paces. The naves are supported by
fifty-four pillars, and by eight piers of plaster-work set in between ;
also by six piers of marble, which are of various colours, and have
on them representations of prayer-niches of divers sorts. Above
the building rises the Lead Dome (Kubbat ar Rasas], which
stands before the Mihrab. It is also called Kubbat an Nasr,
the Eagle's Dome ; for it is as though they likened the Mosque in
plan to a flying eagle, the dome being its head. This is one of
the most wonderful constructions in the world. On whatever side
you approach the city you see the Dome of the Eagle, as it were,
in the air, soaring above all the other buildings of the city.
"Round the Court of the Mosque are three colonnades
namely, to west, and to east, and to north. The width of each of
these colonnades is 10 paces. There are in (each of) these
(colonnades) thirty-three columns and fourteen piers. The width
of the courtyard is 100 ells. It is one of the pleasantest places
to see, and the people of the city meet here to talk and walk of
an evening. In the court are three cupolas. The cupola to the
west is the largest ; it is called Kubbat 'Ayishah (the Dome of
'Ayishah), the Mother of the Faithful. It is supported by eight
marble columns, which are ornamented with mosaic work in
various colours. The dome itself is covered with lead. They say
the revenues of the Mosque -used to be kept there. They told
me, further, that the revenues of the corn-lands, and that derived
from other possessions of the Mosque, amounted yearly to 20,000
gold Dinars (,10,000). The second cupola lies in the eastern
part of the Mosque court. It is similar to the first, but smaller.
It is supported by eight marble columns, and is called the Kubbat
of Zain al 'Abidin. The third cupola is in the centre of the court-
yard. It is small and octagonal, of marble and very wonderfully
built. It is supported on four pillars of white marble. Below it
is a grating of iron, in the middle of which is a spout of brass
from which comes "water, throwing itself out like a silver rod.
They call this the Water Cage (Kafs al Ma], and the people are
fond of putting their mouths thereto to drink of its water. To
the east of the courtyard is a gate which leads into a beautiful
DAMASCUS. 269
mosque called Mash-had 'AH ibn Abu Talib may Allah accept
him ! Opposite this, on the west side (of the courtyard) where
the two colonnades, the northern and the western, meet together,
is a place where they say 'Ayishah was wont to recite the traditions
of the Prophet.
"In the southern part of the Mosque is the Great Maksurah
in which the Imam (or Leader of Prayer) of the Shafi'ites officiates.
In its eastern angle, and opposite the Mihrab, is the Treasury,
where is kept the copy of the Kuran which was sent to Damascus,
having belonged to the Khalif 'Othman. This building is opened
every Friday after the hour of prayer, and the people crowd here
to see it. To the left of the Maksurah is the Mihrab of the
Companions (of the Prophet), which the historians say was the
first Mihrab erected in Islam. Here the Imam of the Malikites
officiates. To the right of the Maksurah is the Mihrab of the
Hanifites where their Imam officiates. Adjacent to this, again, is
the Mihrab of the Hanbalites where their Imam officiates. The
Mosque has three minarets. The one to the east was built
originally by the Greeks. The entrance to it is from inside the
Mosque. In its basement are the cells for ablution where those
attached to the Mosque are wont to go. The second minaret,
which is that on the west, is also of the building of the Greeks.
The third minaret is on the north side, and this minaret was built
by the Muslims. There are attached to the Mosque seventy Criers
to Prayer (Muadhdhin). In the eastern part of the Mosque is a large
Maksurah (or place railed off), wherein is a cistern of water. It
belongs to the people of Zaila' (on the Red Sea), who are negroes.
" In the middle of the Mosque is the tomb of Zakariyya
(Zacharias, father of John the Baptist) peace be upon him ! There
is here a cenotaph placed crosswise between two columns, which
is covered with a black silk cloth, on which is embroidered in
white letters the words : O Zakariyya, verily we announce to thee
(the birth of) a son his name shall be John (Yahya). (Kuran,
xix. 7.) They say the southern (outer) wall of the Mosque was
buUt by the Prophet Hud peace be upon him ! and that his
tomb is there. I saw it, however, again at a place in Yaman in
Arabia.
270 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" The Mosque has four gates. The southern gate is called Bab
az Ziyadah. Above it is kept a piece of the lance which bore
Khalid ibn al Walid's standard. This gate has a great hall before
it, in which are the shops of the old-ironware merchants and
others. From thence you go to the Cavalry House (Ddr al
Khail\ To the left, as you go out (of the Bab az Ziyadah), are
the shops of the coppersmiths. This is their gieat bazaar, and it
extends all along the southern outer wall of the Mosque, and is
one of the finest bazaars in Damascus. Where this bazaar now
stands was formerly the Palace of the Khalif Mu'awiyah, and the
houses of his people. This palace was called Al Khadra. The
Abbasides pulled it down, and turned the place where it stood
into a bazaar. The east gate of the Mosque is the greatest of all
the gates. It is called Bab JairCm. It has a great hall before it,
from which you go out into a long and splendid colonnade, in the
front part of which are five gates, each of which has five high
columns. On the left of this (colonnade) is a great Mash-had
(oratory), in which was kept the head of Al Husain ; and opposite
thereto is a small mosque, called by the name of the Khalif 'Omar
ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz. Here there is running water. In front of the
colonnade are steps by which you descend to the hall. This last
is like a great fosse, adjacent to which is a very high gateway,
which is supported by columns (as large as) huge palm-trunks.
On either side of this hall, too, are columns. Above and on the
top of these is a gallery going all round about, in which are the
stalls of the cloth-merchants and others. Above these, again, are
galleries in which are the shops of the jewellers and book-sellers,
and the makers of the wonderful glass vessels. In the open square
adjacent to the first gate are the stalls of the chief notaries. Of
these stalls two belong to the Shafi'ites, and the rest to the notaries
of the other three orthodox sects. Every stall holds five or six
notaries, and those who are deputed by the Kadi (judge) to
solemnize marriages. The rest of the notaries live elsewhere in
the town. Near these stalls is the Bazaar of the Paper-makers,
where they sell writing-paper and pens, reeds and ink. In the
middle of the hall aforementioned is a large round marble tank,
over which is a dome (pierced in the centre, and) open to the
DAMASCUS. 271
sky, which is supported on marble columns. In the centre of
the tank is a brass spout, from which is thrown up a column of
water into the air for higher than a man's height. This is called
the Fountain (Al Fawwarah\ and is very wonderful to see.
" To the right hand going out of the Bab Jairitn, which is also
called the Bab as Sa'at, is a gallery, in which is a great arch.
Under this is a row of smaller arches, in which open doors equal
in number to the hours of the day. The doors are coloured on
the inside green, and on the outside yellow. When one hour of
the day has elapsed, the inner side, which is green, turns round
and shows outside ; while the green (that was before) outside is
(now) within. They say that on the inside of the gallery there is
someone who attends to turning these doors round with his hand
when each hour has elapsed.
" The western gate (of the Mosque) is called the Bab al Barid.
To the right hand as you go out by it is the Madrasah of the
Shafi'ites. This gate has a hall, in which are the shops of the
chandlers and the booths of the fruit-sellers. Above it is a door
to which you ascend by steps, and this door has high columns
(before it). Below the steps, to right and to left, are two basins
of water that are circular in shape. The northern gate of the
Mosque is called Bab an Natifaniyyin (the Gate of the Sweetmeat
sellers). On the right hand as you go out by it is the Cloister
(Khanikah) called Ash Shami'aniyyah, in the centre of which is a
water-cistern, and a place for the ablution served by running
water. They say this was of old the Palace of the Khalif 'Omar
ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz. At every one of the abovementioned four gates
of the Mosque are places for the ablution, in which altogether are
some hundred cells, with running water in plenty in each.
" Of other places worthy of note are the Dar al Khitabah (the
House of the Friday Sermon), which you enter by the Iron Gate
opposite the Maksurah. This was the gate through which
Mu'awiyah used to pass (to his Palace of the Khadra). The
chief Kadi lives here now. Among the sanctuaries we must
mention the Mash hads (or oratories) of 'Ali and Al Husain, the
Mosque Al Kallasah, and the Mash-hads of Abu Bakr, 'Omar,
and 'Othman. The city gates of Damascus are eight in number.
272 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Among these are B? b al Faradis, Bab al Jabiyah, Bab as Saghir ;
and between the two last lies the spot where are seen many tombs
of the Companions and others, also the tomb of the Khalif
Mu'awiyah, and of Bilal (the Prophet's Crier to Prayer), and of
Ka'ab al Ahbar. At the opposite side to the Bab Jabiyah is the
Bab Sharki, the eastern gate, with the cemetery lying beyond."
Among other places mentioned by Ibn Batutah are As Salihiyyah,
the northern suburb, under Jabal Kasiyim. Also the Tomb of
Dhu-1 Kifl, the prophet, and the Cave of the Blood of Abel ; also
Ar Rabwah (the Hill) behind Jabal Kasiyun, which was the habi-
tation of Mary and of Jesus. " There is a beautiful view from
here," he says, " as also from the Oratory of Al Khidr. The
village of An Nairab lies at the foot of The Hill, Ar Ribwah. Al
Mizzah, called also Mizzah of Kalb, after the tribe of Kalb ibn
Wabrah, lies to the south of Nairab." (I. B., i. 198-236.)
The Great Mosque at Damascus (as Yakut mentions, see above,
p. 263) must have been seriously damaged by the fire which took
place there in the year 1069, during a riot between the Fatimites
and the Shi'ahs. It was, however, shortly afterwards restored, and
such as the building then was, we have it described in the diaries
of the two travellers, Ibn Jubair (1185), and Ibn Batutah (1355).
In the year 1400 the great conqueror Timur-Leng took possession
of Damascus, and during the Mongol occupation of the city the
Great Mosque was set on fire and burnt almost to the ground.
The historian Abu-1 Mahasin says the fire was actually lighted by
Timur's orders ; Ibn Khaldun, on the other hand, asserts that the
mishap occurred during the taking of the city by assault ; while
the author of the Zafar Namah assures us that the fire was
accidental, and that Timur made every possible effort, but in vain,
to have it extinguished. In Timur's camp at this time was the
celebrated Bavarian traveller Schiltberger. The account of his
voyages has been published by the Hakluyt Society, and from his
pages the following quotation, giving some account of the fire, is
of importance, as being the testimony of an eye witness, though
one much prejudiced against Timur :
" Then Tamerlin stormed the City (of Damascus), and took it
by assault. And now soon after he had taken the City, came to
DAMASCUS. 273
him the Geit, that is as much as to say a Bishop, and fell at his
feet, and begged mercy for himself and his priests. Tamerlin
ordered that he should go with his priests into the Temple (mean-
ing the Great Mosque) ; so the priests took their, wives, their
children, and many others, into the Temple for protection, until
there were thirty thousand young and old. Now Tamerlin gave
orders that when the Temple was full, the people inside should be
shut up in it. This was done. Then wood was placed around
the Temple, and he ordered it to be ignited, and they all perished
in the Temple." (From The Bondage and Travels of Johann
Schiltberger, 1396 to 1427, p. 23; Hakluyt Society's publica-
tions.)
18
CHAPTER VII.
LEGENDS AND MARVELS.
Ar Rakini and the Cave of the Sleepers Zttghar (Zoar, Segor), the Cities of
Lot, and the Legend of Lot's daughters Al Kalt anH the Well of the
Leaf Uritn and the Ancient Temple 'Ain al Jdrah and the Menhir
BcC albakk a\\& the Great Stones Bait Lahm (Bethlehem) and the Basilica
of Constantine An Nasirah (Nazareth) and the Wonderful Tree.
AR RAKiM AND THE CAVE OF THE SLEEPERS.
THE story of "The Companions of the Cave" is one that from
earliest times has proved a favourite with the Muslims. This
probably was in the beginning due to the fact that the Prophet had
used the incidents connected with the legend of the Seven Sleepers
of Ephesus to illustrate one of the didactic chapters of the Kuran.
The Christian legend will be found related at length in the Acta
Sanctorum of the Bollandists, under date of July 27 (Tomus vi.,
P- 375 5 de S. S. Septem Dormientibus}.
Briefly, the account there given is, that in the year 250 A.D.,
during the reign of the Emperor Decius, there lived at Ephesus
seven young men, brothers, and ardent Evangelists, whose names, as
recorded in the Roman martyrology, were Maximilianus, Marcus,
Martinianus, Dionysius, John, Serapion, and Constantinus. In
order to escape the persecution then directed against the Chris-
tians, these youths hid themselves in a cave in Mount Cselian. On
being discovered by their persecutors they were walled up in the
cave, and there took sleep in the Lord. In the year 470, in the
days of the Emperor Theodosius, their bodies were discovered, and
ultimately were brought to the Church of St. Victor, at Marseilles,
where they now lie.
The legend was apparently of Syrian origin. It has given its.
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 27$
name to the eighteenth chapter of the Kuran, of which the
following verses are the most important :
" Verse 8. Hast thou reflected that the inmates of the Cave and
of Ar Rakim were one of our wondrous signs ?
" Verse 9. When the youths betook them to the cave they said,
' O, our Lord ! grant us mercy from before Thee, and order for us
our affair aright.'
" Verse 10. Then struck we upon their ears (with deafness) in
the cave for many a year. . . .
" Verse 16. And thou mightest have seen the sun when it arose,
pass on the right of their cave, and when it set, leave them on the
left, while they were in its spacious chamber.
" Verse 17. And thou wouldst have deemed them awake, though
they were sleeping ; and we turned them to the right and to the left.
And in the entry lay their dog with paws outstretched. Hadst
thou come suddenly upon them, thou wouldst surely have turned
thy back on them in flight, and have been filled with fear at them.
" Verse 18. So we awaked them that they might question one
another. Said one of them, ' How long have ye tarried here ?'
. . . They said, * Your Lord knoweth best how long ye have tarried ;
send now one of you with this your coin into the city, and let him
mark who therein hath purest food, and from him let him bring you
a supply; and let him be courteous, and not discover you to anyone.
" Verse 19. 'For they, if they find you out, will stone you or
turn you back to their faith, and in that case it will fare ill with
you for ever.'
" Verse 20. And thus we made their adventure known to (their
fellow-citizens), that they might learn that the promise of God is
true. . . .
" Verse 21. Some say, they were three; their dog the fourth ;
others say, five ; their dog the sixth ; guessing at the secret ; others
say, seven ; their dog the eighth. . . .
" Verse 24. And they tarried in their Cave three hundred years,
and nine years over."*
* Quoted from the Rev. J. M. Rodwell's translation of the Kuran. Accord-
ing to the Christian tradition, the youths entered the cave under the Emperor
Decius and awoke in the days of Theodosius. This gives some 220 years,
which does not agree with the 309 years of the Kuran.
1 8 2
276 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Scattered up and down the volumes of Yakut's great Geo-
graphical Dictionary, under various headings, are many curious
details relating to the legend of the Seven Sleepers, and these
may with advantage be brought together for purposes of com-
parison with accounts, derived from other early Muslim writers, of
reported visits to the Cave.
Starting with the verses of the Kuran, before quoted, where the
Cave and Ar Rakim are mentioned, the Muslims were much
exercised in their minds as to what signification should be attached
to the word Ar Rakim. According to one account (Yakut, ii. 805),
Ar Rakim was said to be " a tablet of lead on which were in-
scribed the names of the Men of the Cave, and their history, and
the date of their flight." The authority of the great traditionist,
Ibn 'Abbas, is, on the same page, given in support of the view
that Ar Rakim was the name of the Cave, which, it is further
stated, "lay between 'Amuriyyah (Amorium) and Nikiyah (Nicaea),
being ten or eleven days' journey from Tarsus." " Other authori-
ties, however," says Yakut, " hold Ar Rakim to be either the name
of the Village where the youths lived, or of the mountain in
which the Cave was to be found." " Or," says Yakut, in another
article, "Jairam is said to be the name of the Cave of the
Sleepers." (Yak., ii. 175.)
The same Ibn 'Abbas (Yak., ii. 805) further states that the
names of the Seven Sleepers were these : " Yamlikha (Jamblichus),
Maksimilina (Maximilianus), Mashilina (Marcellus ?), Martunus
(Martianus), Dabriyus (Dionysius? or Demetrius?), Sirabiyun
(Serapion), and Afastatiyus (Exustadianus ?). The name of their
dog being Kitmir, and of the king from whom they fled Dakiyanus
(Decianus, a mistake for Decius)." The name of their city is given
very correctly (Yak., ii. 806) as Afasus (Ephesus) ; Ar Rakim being
here mentioned as the name of the Cave, and Ar Rass the name
of the Village where the youths dwelt. In a previous article, how-
ever (Yak., i. 91), we find another spelling: " Abasus, a ruined
city of the country of the Greeks, from which the Companions of
the Cave came. It is said to be the City of Dakiyanus, and it
lies near Abulustain. There are many wonderful remains here."
Two pages further on (Yak., i. 93) Abulustain is given as " a
277
celebrated city in the Creek country, near to whicli is Ar
Rakim.' 1
Abulustain, near Kphesus, is the place at the present da}'
called Al Bustan. Yakut apparently has taken this notice ot
Abulustain from 'Ali of Herat, for a similar account is to be found
in his work. (A. II., ( )\f. MS., folio 8f> v.) In the last volume
of Yakut (iv. 1040), " Yanjalus " (evidently a Creek name; is
stated to be the name of the mountain in which lay the (lave ot
the Sleepers, but some doubt is expressed as to where the moun-
tain was situated.
Besides the neighbourhood of Kphesus, Yakut localises the
legend in two other places, namely, in the trans- [ordanie Province
of the Balka, and in Spain. In the latter country, Yakut writes
(vol. ii. 125 and 806), "some say the Cave and Ar Rakim are to
be found at Jinan al Ward (the (Jardens of the Rose), in Anda-
lusia, adding that Tulaitalah (Toledo) is the City of Dakiyantis -
but (iod knows best.' Of Ar Rakim, in the Balk.;, a curious
story relating to a cave to be seen there in the tenth century is
given by Mukaddasi. The earliest notice of Ar Rakim, however,
is found in the work of Istakhri, who wrote a generation before
Mukaddasi : his account is as follows :
" Rakim or Ar Rakim is a town on the confines of the Balka
Province. It is small, and its houses are entirely cut out in the
rock. Their walls, even, are all of the live rock, so that each
appears to be of but a single block of stone." (Is., 64, copied by
A. K, 227.)
* Ar Rakim has often been identified with 1'etra or "Wa li Musa, near Mount
llor, on the hypothesis that the name represents the ' Arekem ' of fosephus
('Anti(|.,' iv. 4, 7 ; and iv. 7,55 i ). This identification, however, which
originated with A. Schultens in the last century (see his ' Vita Saladim,' Index
Geographicus, s.v. Ermkiniuni}, an 1 has been constantly copied by writers
up to the present day, was very justly shown to be impossible by Robinson, in
his Biblical A'es,-a;r/t<;< (ii. 655). Mukaddasi's account confirms this by placing
Ar Rakim three miles from 'Amman. Further, Ibn al Athir ('Chronicle,'
xi. 259) states that Ar Rakim lies two days' march north of Kaiak, on the
road between Damascus and that fortress. Neither of these indications will
allow of Ar Rakim being identified with Pelra (\Va It Musa) lying two days'
march south of the Dead Sea. Tne confusion no uoubt arose from the fact
that there were in Hebrew times two Rakims, as is proved by the notices given
278 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
The following is the account of the cave given by Mukaddasi :
"In the village of Ar Rakim, which lies about a league distant
from 'Amman, and on the border of the desert, is a cavern with
two entrances one large, one small and they say that he who
enters by the larger is unable to leave by the smaller, unless he
have with him a guide. In the cave are three tombs, concerning
which Abu-1 Fadl Muhammad ibn Mansur related to me the fol-
lowing tradition of the Prophet, and his authority was Abu Bakr
ibn Sa'id, who said that 'Abd Allah, the son of the Khalif 'Omar,
was wont to relate the story, he himself having heard it from the
mouth of the Prophet the grace of Allah be upon him, and His
peace ! Thus he spoke : ' While three men once were walking
together, heavy rain overtook them, and drove them into a cavern
of the mountain, and of a sudden there fell, from the mountain
above, a rock which blocked up the mouth of the cave, and
behold they were shut in. Then one of them called to the other,
saying, " Now, mind ye of such good deeds as ye have done, and
call on Allah thereby, beseeching Him, so that for the sake thereof
perchance He may cleave this rock before us." Then one of
them cried aloud, saying, " Allah ! of a truth have not I my two
parents who are old and feeble, besides my children, of whom I
am the sole protector ? And when I return to them, I do milk
the kine, and give first of the milk to my two parents, even before
giving of it to my children. Now, on a certain day, when I was
at forced labour, I came not to them until it was night, and found
my parents slumbering. Then I milked the kine, as was my
wont, and I brought of the milk and came and stood near by
unto them, but feared awaking them from their sleep ; and
further, I dared not give of it to the children before the setting of
it before my elders, although the children, in truth, were in distress
for want thereof. And thus I remained waiting till the breaking
of the dawn. Now, since Thou knowest well how I did this
thing from fear of Thy face, so therefore cause this rock to cleave
before us, that through the same we may perceive the sky."
Then Allah caused a cleft to split in the rock, and through it they
in the Talmud (cf. Neubauer's Geographic du Talmud}, namely, ' Rekem of
Ga'aya' and ' Rekem of Hagra,' the latter being Petra.
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 279
perceived the sky. Then the second one cried aloud, and said,
" Allah ! was there not the daughter of my uncle, whom I loved
passionately, as only man can love? And when I sought to
possess her, she would refuse herself to me, saying that I should
bring her a hundred pieces of gold. Then I made effort, and col-
lected those hundred pieces, bringing them to her ; but even as I
was entering to possess her, she cried aloud and said, ' O servant
of Allah, fear Him, and force me not, except in lawfulness.' So I
went from her. And now, verily, as Thou knowest that 1 did even
this from the fear of Thy face, so therefore cleave unto us again
a portion of this rock." And Allah vouchsafed to cleave thereof
another cleft. Then the last man cried aloud, and said, " Allah !
did I not hire a serving-man for the customary portion of rice ?
And when his task was accomplished, he said to me, 'Now give
to me my due.' And I gave to him his due; but he would not
receive it, and despised it. Then I ceased not to use the same for
sowing till, of profit, I became possessed of cattle and of a neat-
herd slave. And after long time, the man came to me and said,
* Fear Allah, and oppress me not ; but give to me my due.' And
I, answering him, said, ' Go thou, then, to these cattle and their
herdsmen, and receive them.' Said he again, * Fear Allah, and
mock me not !' And I answered him, * Verily, I mock thee not.
Do thou take these cattle and their herdsmen.' So he at last,
taking them, did go his way. And now, since Thou knowest how
I did this thing in fear of Thy face, do Thou cause what of this
rock remaineth to be cleft before us." Then Allah caused the
whole rock to become cleft before them.' ". (Muk., 175.)
The tradition here given is evidently a somewhat disguised
version of the story of the Cave of the Sleepers mentioned in
the Kuran. Mas'udi, writing in 943, remarks on the history of
the Companions of the Cave and Ar Rakim : " There is consider-
able difference of opinion among people as to the Companions of
the Cave and of Ar Rakim. Some there are who hold the Com-
panions of the Cave to be the same as the Companions of Ar
Rakim, and say that Ar Rakim is but the name of the Com-
panions of the Cave that were written (Rakama) on a tablet of
stone over the door of the cavern. Others say the Companions
280 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
of the Cave are quite distinct from the Companions of Ar Rakim."
(Mas., iii. 307.)
Of visits to the reputed Cave of the Sleepers in the Greek
territories there are several accounts quoted by Yakut, and other
writers. The earliest is said to have taken place about the year
ii A.M. (632); next in chronological order is the account found
in Mukaddasi of a visit in the year 102 (720) ; a third visit, men-
tioned in Yakut, is set down to have taken place in the reign of
the Khalif al VVathik, about the year 845 A.D.
The first account is as follows :
" 'Ubadah ibn as Samit relates as follows : * Abu Bakr as Siddik
despatched me the year he became Khalif (A.H. 11, A.D. 632) to
the King of Rum (Greece) to exhort him to receive Islam, or else
to declare him war.'
" 'Ubadah continues : ' We journeyed until we entered the
country of the Greeks, and when we were approaching Constanti-
nople, there appeared before us a red mountain in which they
said were the Companions of the Cave, and Ar Rakim ; so we
turned aside to a monastery, and inquired of the people thereof
concerning them, and they pointed out a passage in the mountain.
Then we told them that we wished to see the (Companions of the
Cave). They said, " Give us somewhat," and we gave them
Dinars. Then they entered the passage, and we entered after
them, and there was herein a door of iron which they opened,
and they brought us to a mighty chamber (bait) hollowed in the
mountain, in which were thirteen men lying on their backs, as
though they were asleep. They all were covered from head to
foot with dust-gray cloaks and shirts. We could not discover
whether their clothes were of wool or of hair, or of what other
material ; but the texture was harder than brocade, and crackled
from the thickness and the excellence of the stuff. We saw that
most of them had on boots (k/iufaf) reaching up to the middle of
the leg, but some were shod with sandals (m'dt) sewn together.
Both the boots and the sandals were of excellent sewing, and the
leather was such as the like I have not seen elsewhere. We un-
covered their faces, one after the other, and lo ! in all was the
complexion of healthful bloom, and of red blood (in the cheeks),
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 281
as is the appearance of a living man. Of some (the hair) was
turning gray, and some were in their youth with black hair; some
had flowing locks, and some were shaven. Their stature was that
of ordinary Muslims. When we came to the last of them, we
beheld that his head had been cut off with a sword-stroke, and it
was as though it had been struck off that very day. We inquired
of those who had conducted us hither what they did with these
men. They replied, it was their wont to come in here on the
festival-day of (the Companions of the Cave), when the people of
the country would assemble at the gate of the cave, coming in
from all the towns and villages around ; and that then, during
some days, they would stand the dead men upright in order to
clean them, and shake the dust from their cloaks and shirts ; also,
they pared their nails, and cut their moustaches, and after this
they laid them down once more in the position in which we now
saw them.'
" ' Then we inquired of our guides as to who these men had
been, and what had been their office, and how long they had lain
in this place. The guides answered us they had found in their
Books that these men had lain in this place since four hundred
years before the coming of the Messiah peace be upon Him !
and that they had been prophets, sent at a certain time, and that
they knew naught more of their condition but this.'
" Says the writer, 'Abd Allah (Yakut), the poor servant (of
God) : ' All this have I copied from the work of a man of trust,
but Allah alone knows if it be true.' '' (Yak., ii. 806.)
A somewhat similar account to the above is also given by
Mukaddasi, but with the difference that the visit he narrates took
place some ninety years later than the date quoted for Yakut's
narrative, and naturally the " narrator " is not the same. Mukad-
dasi, after stating that Tarsus was in his day (985) in the power of
the Greeks, continues :
" As regards the Cave (of the Seven Sleepers), the city to which
it belongs is Tarsus ; and further, here is the tomb of Dakiyanus,
and in the neighbourhood is a hill, on which is a mosque, said to
have been built above the cave. The jurisprudist Abu 'Abd-Allah
Muhammad 'Omar al Bukhari related to us, quoting the words of
282 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Abu Talib al Vamani, who held it by a chain of authorities, that
Mujahid ibn Yazid had reported, saying, * I went forth with
Khalid al Baridi in the days when he went on an embassy to the
Emperor (at Constantinople), during the year of the Flight 102
(720), and beside us two there went no other Muslims. After we
had visited Constantinople, we set out to return by 'Amuriyyah
(Amorium), and thence, in the course of four nights, we reached
Al Ladhikiyyah (Loadicea Combusta), which had been destroyed
by fire. From thence we came on to Al Hawiyyah, which lies in
the midst of the mountains, and it was here told us that in this
place were some dead men, who they were none knew, but there
were guards set to guard them. And the people caused us to
enter a tunnel, some 50 ells deep and 2 broad, having lamps with
us, and behold, in the middle of this tunnel was an iron door, it
being a hiding-place for their families at times when the Arabs
make their incursions against them. At this spot were ruined
buildings of great extent, in the midst of which was a hole in the
ground, some 15 ells across, filled with water, and from here one
could perceive the sky. The cavern from this place entered the
bowels of the mountain, and we were conducted to a spot right
under Al Hawiyyah, where was a chamber some 20 ells deep. In
this were thirteen men, lying prostrate one behind the other, each
wearing a cloak. 1 was unable to see whether this was of wool
or of hair, but the cloaks were gray in colour dust-coloured vest-
ments which crackled under the touch like parchment. In
every case the garments, which were fringed, veiled the face of
the wearer, and covered his limbs. And some wore boots up to
the middle of the leg, and some sandals, while others had shoes ;
but everything was perfectly new. On uncovering the face of one
of them, I perceived that the hair of his head and of his beard
had remained unchanged, and that the skin of his face was
shining, the blood appearing in his cheeks. It was as though
these men had laid themselves down but a moment before, for
their limbs were supple as are the limbs of living men, and all
were still in their youth, except certain of them whose locks had
begun to turn gray. And behold, one of them had had his head
cut off, and inquiring of the people of the matter, they answered,
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 283
saying, " When the Arabs came down on us, and took possession
of Al Hawiyyah, we gave them information concerning these (dead
men), but they would not believe us, and one of the Arabs struck
the head off this body."
" ' The men of Al Hawiyyah further related to us that at the
commencement of each year on their feast-day the people
"assemble in this cavern, and, raising each of these corpses one
by one, they cause them to stand upright. Then they wash them,
and shake the dust off their clothes, and arrange their garments.
Moreover, these dead men are not allowed afterwards to fall or
sink down, but are laid out by the people, after the manner we
saw, on the ground ; and they pare their nails three times in the
year, for these do continue to grow. Then we inquired the
explanation of these things, and concerning their origin ; but the
people replied that they knew nothing about the matter, only
adding, "We call them prophets."'
" The before-mentioned Mujahid and Khalid further state that
they themselves concluded that these men must be the Com-
panions of the Cave (mentioned in the Kuran) ; but Allah alone
knows." (Muk., 153.)
The third account is quoted by Yakut. This visit is stated to
have taken place rather more than a century after the one
described in the pages of Mukaddasi :
"It was the Khalif Al Wathik (A.H. 227-232; A.D. 842-847)
who sent Muhammad ibn Musa al Munajjim (the Astrologer) to
the countries of the Greeks to discover the Companions of the
Cave and Ar Rakim. This Muhammad, the astrologer, reports
of his journey as follows :
" ' And we reached the country of the Greeks, and, lo ! before
us was a small mountain, the base of which was not more than
1,000 ells (round). In its side is a passage ; and you enter by
this passage, and pass through a tunnel in the ground for the
distance of 300 paces, when you arrive at a portico (riwak). This
is in the mountain ; it is supported by columns cut out of the
rock. In the rock are numerous chambers (bait\ and among
them one with a tall doorway, of man's height, closed by a stone
gate. It is here the dead men lie. There was one in attendance
284 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
who guarded them, and with him were eunuchs. The guardian
would have turned us aside from seeking to see the dead men ;
for he said that of a surety he who went down to seek them
would receive some bodily injury. But by this dissimulation he
sought rather to keep the advantage of the visitation to himself
(and his people).
" ' Then said I to him, " Give me but a sight of them, and
thou shalt be free (of all blame in the matter)." And so ascending
with great pain a rough way, and accompanied by one of my
young men, I beheld these (dead men). And, lo ! (their bodies;
had been rubbed with unguents, the hair being soft in the hand,
and their limbs anointed with aloes, and myrrh, and camphor to
preserve them. Their skin clave to the bones for I passed my
hand over the breast of one of them and 1 found the hair
thereof rough. The garments were strong (of texture).
" ' After that (we had returned) the guardian presented us with
food, and besought us to eat ; but when we took thereof and
tasted it our stomachs revolted from it, and vomited it up again.
It was as though a villainy had been attempted, and that (the
guardian) had sought to kill us or certain of us, at least in
order to justify the words of dissimulation used in the presence of
the king when saying that the Companions of Ar Rakim would
surely work us evil. Then said we to the (guardian), " We
had imagined they would have been living men, with the
semblance of those who are dead ; but behold these (men) are
not of this sort !" And we left him, and went our ways.' "
(Yak., ii. 805.)
Referring to the various accounts of the Cave of the Seven
Sleepers, Al Biruni, who wrote in 390 (A.D. 1000), has some
pertinent remarks, which I quote from Professor Sachau's excellent
translation of the text,* where, in the chapter on the festivals of
the Syrian calendar, and under date of the 5th of Tishrin I.
(October), we find the following :
" Commemoration of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, who are
mentioned in the Kuran. The Khalif Al Mu'tasim had sent
* Translation of the Ath&r al Bakiyah, p. 285. Oriental Translation Fund,
1879.
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 285
along with his ambassador another person, who saw the place of
the Seven Sleepers with his own eyes, and touched them with his
own hands. This report is known to everybody. We must,
however, observe that he who touched them />., Muhammad
ibn Musa ibn Shakir himself makes the reader rather doubt
whether they are really the corpses of those seven youths or other
people in fact, some sort of deception. 'Ali ibn Yahya, the
astronomer, relates that, on returning from his expedition, he
entered that identical place a small mountain, the diameter of
which at the bottom is a little less than 1,000 yards. At the
outside you see a subterranean channel, which goes into the
interior of the mountain, and passes through a deep cave in the
earth for a distance of 300 paces. Then the channel runs out
into a sort of half-open hall in the mountain, the roof being
supported by perforated columns ; and in this hall there is a
number of separate compartments. There, he says, he saw
thirteen people, among them a beardless youth, dressed in woollen
coats and other woollen garments, in boots and shoes. He
touched some hairs on the forehead of one of them, and tried to
flatten them, but they did not yield. That their number is more
than seven which is the Muhammadan and more than eight
which is the Christian tradition is, perhaps, to be explained in
this way, that some monks have been added who died there in
the same spot. . . ."
A few words may be added in conclusion regarding the names
of the Seven Sleepers as given in the authorities quoted in the
Acta Sanctoium of the Bollandists (Tomus vi. Julii, p. 375 et
seq.\ and in the Bibliotheca Orientalia of Assemani (vol. i., p. 335
et seq.\
The legend of the Seven Sleepers is first referred to in Western
literature by Gregory of Tours (De Gloria Martyrum, vol. i., 9,
caput 95), according to whom they were seven in number, their
names being Clemens, Primus, Lcetus, Theodorus, Gaudens,
Quiriacus (or Cyriacus\ and Innocentius. In the official list of
the Roman Acta Sanctorum the names appear in Latin as
MaximianuS) Constantinus, Malchus, Serapion, Martinianus,
Dionysius, Johannes. In Greek the first two figure as Maximilianus
2 86 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
and Constantinianus respectively; while Exacustodianus replaces
Malchus, and Jamblichus Serapion, of the Roman list.
In Assemani (Bibl. Or., i. 336) we find a list taken from the
writings of Dionysius, the Jacobite patriarch, who gives the number
as eight, their names being Maximilianus, Jamblichus, Serapion,
Martinianus, Johannes, Exustadianus, Dionysius, and Antoninus.
The following are the names, seven in number, from two other
Marty rologies, as given in the Ada San:torum (loc. at., p. 376) :
Russian : Maximilianus, Dionysius, Amulichus, Martinus,
Antoninus, Johannes, Marcellus.
Ethiopian (as given by Jobus Ludolfus, Calendarium sEthiopi-
cum, p. 436) : Arshaledes, Diomedes, Eugenius, Dimatheus,
Bronatheus, Stephus, Cyriacus.
The list given by the Arab traditionist, Ibn 'Abbas (cited
above, p. 276), is, doubtless, somewhat corrupt. In Eutychius
(edited by Pocock, vol. i., p. 390 of the text) the names appear
as Maksimyaniis, Amlikhus, Diydnfis, Martinus, Diyuriisiyus,
Antuniyus, Yuhanna.
The variety in the names would appear to have struck the
Martyrologists as requiring some explanation. In the Ada
Sanctorum (loc. cit., p. 376) the opinion of the anonymous Greek
author of a MS. in the Medicean Library is quoted, as also that
of Boninus Membritius. These are both of the opinion that the
variants were due to the fact that the individuals are cited, in one
account, under their original Pagan names, and, in another, under
the names they subsequently received in baptism.
ZUGHAR* AND THE CITIES OF LOT.
The town of Zughar, so frequently mentioned by early Arab
historians, is the Segor of the Crusading Chronicles, situated at
the southern end of the Dead Sea. Whether or not this occupies
the site of the Biblical Zoar of Lot is a point on which certainty
is hardly to be obtained after the lapse of so many centuries, and
when taking into account the extreme paucity and obscurity of
the topographical indications afforded by the Book of Genesis.
It has, however, been stated f that the Arab geographers place
* Also spelt Sughar, and Suknr.
f Notably by Dr. Selah Merrill, East of the Jordan, p. 233 et se.q.
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 287
Zughar at the northern end of the Dead Sea, near Jericho; and
on this authority the Zoar of Lot has been identified with Tell
esh Shaghur, not far to the east of the Jordan Ford. The Arab
geographers are, however, unanimous in placing Zughar at the
southern extremity of the Dead Sea, and in this they may be taken
to confirm the tradition preserved by Josephus (who is followed
by Eusebius and Jerome in the Onomasticon^ who speaks of the
Dead Sea as stretching from Jericho on the north to Segor on the
south.
The misapprehension of the texts of the Arab geographers is,
doubtless, due to a confusion of the two Ghaurs. For it must be
borne in mind that the valley leading south from the Dead Sea to
the head of the Gulf of 'Akabah is known to the Arabs as the
Ghaur (see above, p. 31), and hence bears the same name as
that applied by them to the Jordan Valley running up north from
that lake. To the Arab mediaeval writers, Zughar, the City of
Lot, was as well known a place as Jerusalem or Damascus. It
was the most noted commercial centre of the south country, and
the capital of the Province of Ash Sharah (Edom), being com-
parable even to Basrah, the Port of Baghdad, for the extent of its
commerce.
To sum up the indications detailed below, Zughar lay near the
Dead Sea, one or two days' march from Jericho, three days' from
Jerusalem, one from Ma'ab (near Karak), and four from the head
of the Gulf of 'Akabah. From all of which it is impossible that a
town opposite Jericho, across the Jordan Ford, can be intended.
To set the matter of the position of Zughar beyond a doubt,
however, the testimony of Abu-1 Fida may be quoted, who gives
the latitude of the town. For the case in point, the latitude and
longitudes given in the Arab geographers though not exact pos-
sibly as to the number of degrees and minutes are worthy of
reliance for fixing the comparative position of places. The figures
to be quoted prove that Zughar lay south of the middle of
the Dead Sea, while Jericho, of course, lay north of this point.
The latitude in the Arab geographers was reckoned, as with us,
south to north, beginning at the equator ; the longitude, west to
east, beginning at the Fortunate Isles in the Atlantic.
2 88 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
These are the figures given in Abu-1 Fida (text, pp. 39, 48) :
North Lat. West Long.
Zughar . . . . 30 and a fraction . 57^
Central point of 'the Dead Sea . 31 . . 59
Jericho . . . . 31 and a fraction . 56^
Baisan .... 32% . . .58
Hence Zughar lay about one degree of latitude south of Jericho.
The curious tradition (see p. 290) preserved in Yakut connecting
Zughar and 'Amman with the two incestuous daughters of Lot, is
derived from Rabbinical sources, amplifying the account given in
the nineteenth chapter of the Book of Genesis concerning the origin
of Ammon and Moab. The two daughters of Lot are called in
the Aramaic writings Rabbetha, the Elder, and Se'irta, the Younger,
which in the Arabic have become Rubbah, or Rabbah^ and Sughar
or Zughar. The name Rubbah is sometimes writen by mistake
Rayyah (by the omission of a diacritical point ),* but that this is
not the true reading is proved by its position in the alphabetical
arrangement of Yakut's Dictionary, where the article ' Rubbah '
occurs in the section of Rb, not in Ry.
In regard to the names of the Cities of the Plain preserved by
Mas'udi and Yakut, it is worthy of note (in view of a possible
identification of the site with some existing ruin), that Gomorrah
figures as 'Amura, with the initial letter 'A in in place of Ghain ;
thus preserving the transcription found in the Hebrew text where
we have Amorah the pronunciation of Gomorrah having been
adopted into our Bible from the Greek Septuagint version. t
Though Zughar was such a large and well-known town during
all the Middle Ages, no traces apparently remain of it at the pre-
sent day ; at any rate, none have been described by modern tra-
vellers, who have visited the southern shores of the Dead Sea.
The same remark has also to be made regarding any remains of
the other Cities of Lot mentioned by the Arab geographers.
Our first description of Zughar is the account given by Istakhri
and Ibn Haukal, in the latter half of the tenth century A.D. :
* See in the Index, s.v. 'Kabbah.'
t A full discussion of Segor, Sodom, and Gomorrah will be found in a paper
by M. Clermont Ganneau in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Explora-
tion Fund, 1886, p. 19.
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 289
" /ughar is a city of heat lying in a hot country situated very
near the desert, but it is full of good things. They grow here
much indigo, which, however, for dye purposes, does not come up
to that of Kabul. The trade of the place is considerable, and its
markets are greatly frequented.
" In Zughar there is a species of fresh date called Al Inkila, 4
the equal of which you will not find in 'Irak or elsewhere for
sweetness and beauty of appearance. It is saffron coloured and
of exquisite quality, and four (dates) go to a span length " (or " to
a pound." I. H.).
" The Country of Lot's People (Diydr Kaum Lut) is that known
as the Overturned, or the Accursed. There is here neither seed
sown, nor milch kine grown, nor herb nor plant of any kind. It
is a black plain strewn over with stones all of about equal size.
Apparently these are the * Marked Stones ' (mentioned in the
Kuran, ix. 84), which were cast down on the people of Lot. On
most of these stones there is what looks like the impress of a seal;
and they resemble in appearance cheeses, and are extraordinary
for their size and roundness." (Is., 64 ; I. H., 1 24, copied by
A. R, 228.)
Mas'udi, writing in 943 A.D., notes that "the Cities of Lot's
People were in the Jordan Territory in the Province of Filastin.
There were five cities, of which the capital was Sadum. The
name of each of their Kings in turn was Bari', as mentioned in
the Pentateuch. "t (Mas., iii. 222.)
"The five cities of Lot were called Sadum, 'Amura (Gho-
morrah), Admuta (Admah), Sa'ura (Zoar), and Sabura (Zeboim)."
(Mas., i. 85.)
Of Sughar, Mukaddasi writes, in the tenth century : " The
people of the two neighbouring districts call the town Sakar (that
is, Hell) ; and a native of Jerusalem was wont to write from here
to his friends, addressing, From the lower Sakar (Hell) unto those
in the upper Firdtis (Paradise). And verily this is a country that
is deadly to the stranger, for its water is execrable ; and he who
* Inkild dates are, perhaps, those the ancients knew by the name of NinroXaoi.'
.See Mover's Phtrnicia, iii. I, 234.
t Gen. xiv. 2 : ' These made war with Bera, King of Sodom.'
19
290 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
should find that the Angel of Death delays for him, let him come
here, for in all Islam I know not of any place to equal it in evil
climate. I have seen other lands that were stricken by the plague
but none so badly as this, not even the land of Jurjan (in Persia).
Its people are black-skinned and thick-net. Its waters are hot,
even as though the place stood over Hell-fire. On the other hand,
its commercial prosperity is like Busrah (the port of Baghdad) on
a small scale, and its trade is very lucrative The town stands on
the shore of the Overwhelming Lake (the Dead Sea), and is, in
truth, a remnant of the Cities of Lot, being the one that was saved
by reason that its inhabitants knew nothing of the abominations
practised in the other cities. The mountains rise up near, and
overhang the town." (Muk., 178 ; copied by Yak., iii. 396.)
" Between Palestine and the Hijjaz, that is, between Ar Ramlah
and Wailah, are the stones which were cast at the people of Lot.
They lie along the Pilgrim Road, being striped, and of size both
large and small." (Muk., 185.)
The tradition of Lot's Daughters, given by Yakut, is repeated
twice, and then again referred to in his article on 'Amman (see
Part II.). Zughar is also connected with other Muslim legends,
namely those relating to the events that announce the Day of
Judgment.
Yakut's account is as follows :
" Zughar is a village in the Eastlands of Syria on the borders of
the Stinking Lake (the Dead Sea). The Lake is called after it
Bahr Zughar. It is near Al Karak. Zughar was the name of the
Daughter of Lot who dwelt at this place, and from her the town
was called. It lies three days' march from Jerusalem on the
Hijjaz border, and they have much arable land here. Zughar is-
mentioned in the Tradition of the Spy, called Al Jassasah, which is-
a Beast lying in the Isles of the Sea who spies for news and carries
it to the Antichrist, who is called Ad Dajjal. She is also called
* the Beast of the Earth.' The spring, 'Am Zughar, will sink dowrr
in the End of Days, and this is one of the signs of the Resurrection.
" A man of the people of Tamim ad Dari relates that he and
his companions were driven to a certain island in the sea by a
contrary wind, and they found there a Beast. They inquired..
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 291
'Who art thou ?' The Beast answered, 'I am she who spies.'
Then said they, ' Give us news.' But she replied, ' If ye want
news, then turn to this Monastery, where is a man who hath desire
to see you.' So the men went to him, and he said, * Verily ye
must inform me, and give me news.' Said he, continuing, *.What
doth the Lake of Tabariyyah ?' They replied, ' It laves its
borders.' Said he, ' What doth the Palm of 'Amman and that of
Baisan?' They replied, 'The people thereof gather the fruits.'
Said he, 'What doth the Spring of Zughar?' They replied, 'The
people thereof drink of it.' Then said he, ' Had it been dry, I
had broken my truce, and trod under my feet all the water-stations,
all except those at Makkah and Al Madinah alone.' And this
Zughar is that which is beside the Stinking Sea."
" Ibn 'Abbas further relates : When the people of Lot perished,
Lot fled with his daughters, intending to go to Syria. But the eldest
of his daughters, who was called Rubbah, died first, and she was
buried at a spring which was called after her 'Ain Rubbah. Then
after this the younger died also, and her name was Zughar, and
she was buried near a spring, which was called after her 'Ain
Zughar.
" This valley (in which Zughar lies) is most unhealthy, and its
people only continue to dwell there because it is their native place.
They are afflicted in most years with the plague, and it kills the
greater number of them." (Yak., ii. 934 ; Mar., i. 514.)
" The name of Zughar, according to the same authorities, is
also spelt Sughar and Sukar" (Yak., iii. 396; Mar., ii. 159.)
Of the other cities of the plain mentioned by Yakut are the
following :
" Dadhuma, one of the villages of the People of Lot." Possibly
the Biblical Admah. (Yak., ii. 516 ; Mar, i. 381.)
'Amura (Gomorrah) said to be " a Hebrew word, and one of
the Cities of Lot's people." (Yak., iii. 594.)
"Sadum (Sodom), is one of the cities of Lot's people. Sadum,
however, says Al Madaini, is the city of Sarmin, of the Halab
(Aleppo) District, and is a well-known and populous place. There
is an edict in force here, that whosoever commits fornication, there
is taken from him a fine of four Dirhams." (Yak., iii. 59 ; Mar.,
ii. 18.)
192
292 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" Sabwayaim (Seboim). One of the cities of the people of Lot."
(Yak., iii. 367 ; Mar., ii. 146.)
Finally, under the heading of Ar Rubbah, or Ar Rabbah, the
tradition of Lot's Daughters is given again by Yakut in the follow-
ing words :
" Ar Rubbah is a village on the side of the Ghaur, lying between
the lands of the Jordan and Balka Provinces. According to the
tradition related by Ibn 'Abbas : When Lut (Lot) fled from his
home, he had with him his two daughters, one of whom was called
Rubbah and the other Sughar. And the elder of them died, that
is Rubbah, near a spring, and was buried there. And they called
the spring after her 'Ain Rubbah, and built over it a town called
Rubbah. And Zughar, the younger daughter, died at 'Ain Zughar,
which was in like manner called after her." (Yak., ii. 752 ; Mar.,
i. 460.)
Among later accounts of Zughar the following note by Dimasliki,
written about the year 1300, is the only one worth translating:
" Zughar lies in the district of As Safiyah in the Ghaur. There
grows here a kind of date like those called Al Barani and Al Izad
in 'Irak." (Dim , 213.)
Besides those already given, the following notes of distances
between Zughar and the neighbouring towns are worth inserting, as
tending to prove that this city lay at the south end of the Dead Sea :
Zughar to Riha (Jericho), two days. (Is., I.H., Id.)
To Jabal ash Sharah, one day. (Is., I.H.)
And to the further limit of the same, two days. (Id.)
Zughar to Kawus, one march. (Muk.) To Maab, one march.
(Muk.)
To Wailah, four marches. (Muk.)
THE WELL OF THE LEAF.*
" Al Kalt," writes Yakut, " is a place in Syria where there is a
well called Bir al Kalt.
" The tradition concerning this well is as follows : Hisham ibn
Muhammad reports that Ibn 'Abd ar Rahman the Kuraishite
related to him the following, which he received from the wife of
* See also p. 198.
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 293
Shuraik ibn Habashah an Numairi. Said she : * We set out with
the Khalif 'Omar ibn Al Khattab in the days when he went (from
Al Madinah) up to Syria, and we halted at a place called Al Kalt.
Then my husband, Shuraik, went to draw water, and he let fall his
bucket in (the well of) Al Kalt, and could not get it again because
of the press of men. And one said to him, " Put it off till the
night-time." So when the evening was come he descended into
(the well of) Al Kalt, but did not return. The next day 'Omar
wished to set out on the march, but I went to him and told him
of my husband's being missing, and he tarried during three days,
but on the fourth was preparing to depart, when, behold, Shuraik
appeared. The people inquired of him, " Where hast thou been?"
But he (answered not, and) went before 'Omar. And in his hand
he held a leaf, but the face of the leaf was hidden, for the back
curled over and hid it. Said he, " O Commander of the Faithful !
verily I found in the (well of) Al Kalt a way, and one met me
coming, and took me to a land the like of which is not among
your lands, with gardens the like of which is not among the gardens
of this world. And I asked that he would give me something,
but he replied that this was not the time for such things. But I
took this leaf, and behold, it is as the leaf of a fig-tree." Then
'Omar called to Ka'ab al Ahbar* and said, "Hast thou not
found in thy (Jewish) Books, that a certain man of our people
should enter Paradise and yet return again alive ?" Said he, " Yea
verily, and if he be among these men, I will point him out unto
thee." Said 'Omar, " He is even among these men." So (Ka'ab)
looked at them and pondered, and said, "This is he." And
( : 0mar) proclaimed that the dress of the Bani Numair should
henceforth be green (as it is) even to this present day.' Here
ends the account." (Yak., iv. 157 ; Mar., ii. 439.)
AND THE ANCIENT TEMPLE.
"Urim,'' says Yakut, ''is the name of each of four villages
belonging to Halab (Aleppo) Province. These are, Urim al
Kubra (the Great), tlrim as Sughra (the Little), Urim al Jauz (of
the Nut), and Urim al Baramakah (of the Barmecides).
* Concerning this personage see note to p. 142.
294 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" In Urim al Jauz is a marvellous sight. For there is here a
building which was in ancient times a Temple, and the people of
the neighbouring villages were used to see shining in it a light as
of a white fire, but when they approached thereto it disappeared,
and they could see nothing. It has been related to me by certain
persons in Halab that on this building were once three tablets of
stone with inscriptions, in ancient writing, to be interpreted as
follows. On the tablet facing south it was written :
" God is One ! this edifice was completed three hundred and twenty -
eight years before the coming of the Messiah -peace be upon Him !
" On the tablet that was over the doorway was written :
" Peace be on him who hath completed this edifice.
" And on the tablet to the north was written :
" This is the light of the East, beloved of God, which came to us
in the days of Al Barbar, in the days of renewed conquest, in the
days of the King Indwiis and Inds of the Sea who came to the House.
And Kaldsds, and Kdsurus, and Baldbiya. On the izth of the
month /////, of the date above mentioned. May peace continue even
unto /he latter end of the World and the time of righteousness."
(Yak., i 401 ; Mar., i. 102.)
'AIN AL JARAH, AND THE MENHIR.
'Ain al Jarah, according to Yakut, is a domain near Halab
(Aleppo). He continues :
"Abu 'Ali at Tanukhi al Husain ibn Bint Ghulam al Babagha
has related to me (Yakut) the following account, which he further
wrote down for me in his own hand, certifying to the truth
thereof :
" There was (said he) in the neighbourhood of Halab a domain
called 'Ain Jarah, and between this place and Al Haunah,
which some also call Al Jaumah, was an upright stone, as might
be for a boundary between the two domains. Now, whenever a
quarrel fell out between any of the inhabitants of these two
domains, the people of Al Haunah were wont to proceed and
throw down this standing stone. As soon, however, as the stone
had fallen, the women-folk of the two domains would come out
publicly and in all their ornaments, but as though deprived of
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 295
their reason ; and they would seek to commit fornication, neither
were they to be restrained in the madness that possessed them by
any sense of shame. To prevent this the men would hasten to
the stone and set it up again as it was before, standing erect and
firm; after which the women would return to their houses, regaining
the discrimination of matters such as are abhorrent to commit.
" Says the writer (Yakut) : I inquired at Halab for this domain,
and they told me of it, and they mentioned that there was near
by, in a ravine like a torrent bed, a standing column ; what this
had been was not known ; neither had these people any knowledge
of this story that had been related unto me, to the effect that
when the stone was thrown down, the women (of the districts)
would become possessed by erotic desires. 'Ain al Jarah is a
celebrated domain, and one that is well known to all the inhabit-
ants of Halab." (Yak., iii. 760; Mar., ii. 295.)
The story of the Menhir, near 'Ain Jarah, is curious if true.
The present village of the name lies north-west of Aleppo, near
the road to Iskandarun.
BA'ALBAKK (HELIOPOLIS).
Ya'kubi, in the ninth century A.D., writes " Ba'albakk is one
of the finest towns in Syria. It has magnificent sti-ne buildings;
and there is also a wonderful spring, from which issues a copious
river. Within the town are both gardens and orchards. Many
Persians are settled here." (Yb., 112, 114.)
"The stones of Ba'albakk," says Ibn al Fakih, "are one of
the wonders of Syria. There are here stones, the smallest of
which measures 15 ells; while the largest of them, a single stone
in the wall, measures 10 ells (15 feet) in the height, by 15 ells
(22 feet) in the breadth, and 45 ells (67 feet) in the length."*
(I. F, 118.)
Mas'ildi, in 943, writes : " At Ba'albakk, in the Province of
1 )amascus, in the district of Sanir, is the Temple of Ba'al. The
ancient Greeks chose this piece of ground, lying between the
* According to Baedeker (Syria, p. 499), the three largest stones in the west
wall of the Temple measure 64, 63^, and 62 feet in length, by 13 feet in thick-
ness ; what the breadth is cannot be seen.
296 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Jabal Lubnan (Lebanon) and the Jabal Sanir, for the building of
their temple, as being a choice place for their idols. The temple
consists of two edifices, one larger than the other ; and in both of
them are sculptures, most marvellously cut in the stone, such as
you will not find the like of executed elsewhere, even in wood.
For the height of the roof, the hugeness of the stones, the length
of the columns, and the breadth of the porticos, are not more
wonderful than is the building as a whole." (Mas., iv. 87,)
Istakhri and Ibn Haukal write : " Ba'albakk, in the Damascus
Province, is a city lying on the hill-slope. All its edifices are of
stone, with castles (Kustir) of stone built with high columns. In
all Syria there is no place more wonderful to see, or with greater
buildings." (Is., 61 ; I. H., 116.)
In Mukaddasi we read : " Ba'albakk is an ancient and fortified
city. Within the ramparts are cultivated lands, also many ruins.
Grapes are in abundance. Like the other cities of the Province
of Damascus, Ba'albakk is prosperous and pleasant, being situated
in the lands bordering on the Nahr al Maklub (the river Orontes).
Ba'albakk is noted as being the coldest place in Syria. It is
celebrated for the sweetmeat called Malban." (Muk., 160, 179,
and 181 ; see above, p. 20.)
Idrisi's account in 1 154 is the following : " Ba'albakk is a fortified
town on the mountain flank. It is surrounded by a'wall of fortifi-
cation, built of stone that is 20 spans ( ' hibr) in width. Water runs
through the town, and passes also through most of the houses.
On the river near the town are mills and water-wheels. The place
has many crops, luxuriant vegetation, and quantities of fruit. The
presses overflow with grapes, and there are trees that give all sorts
of edible fruits, so that provisions are cheap. At Ba'albakk are
the most wonderful edifices and ruins, which are everywhere
celebrated for their magnificence and the solidity of their con-
struction. There are especially two wonderful buildings that
were theatres (al Mal'abain), one the larger, the other the smaller.
The larger, ft is said, was built in the days of Solomon, the son
of David, and it is most wondrous to look on. There are in it
stones of the length of TO cubits, some more, some less. And
there is also a part that is built up on high columns, and most
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 297
astonishing to behold. The smaller theatre is, for the greater
part, fallen into ruin, and its glories are of the past. There is
standing at the present time but a portion of its wall, of the
length of 20 cubits. It rises to a height above the floor of
20 cubits, and there are in its construction but seven stones, one
stone being at the bottom, and two stones lying thereon, and four
stones being placed on the two. In this town of Ba'albakk are
all sorts of other wondrous buildings." (Id., 15.)
Yakut speaks in general terms of the wonderful remains at
Ba'albakk, consisting of palaces with marble columns : " The
city," he says, "lies 12 leagues distant from the sea-coast, and
3 days from Damascus. Ba'al was the name of an idol, and
Bakk is its neck, or the thin part of its body. They say Ba'al-
bakk formed the dowry of Queen Balkis (of Sheba), and that
Solomon's palace here was the one built on columns. Ba'albakk,
at the Muslim conquest, capitulated after Damascus was taken.
Jabal Sanir belonged to Ba'albakk. The Greeks built an idol
temple here. Ba'al was the idol of the people, to whom the
Prophet Iliyas (Elias) was sent. There are two temples here
one larger, one smaller filled with wonderful sculptures carved in
the stone as though it were wood, and high columns." (Yak.,
i. 672, 675 ; Mar., i. 162.)
" Ba'albakk," writes Dimashki, " is a very ancient city, with
remains of the times of Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and the
Greeks. There are here columns reaching a height of 40 ells,
not counting the bases, which are buried under ground. These
are held together above by great blocks of stone, going from
capital to capital. In the Cast'e of Ba'albakk are two towers, in
the wall of which are three great stones, each stone measuring
36 paces in length, and nearly twice a man's height in thickness,
and as broad as the walls themselves. In the castle is a well
called Bir ar Rahman (the Well of Mercy) ; and they say there is
never water in it so long as peace lasts, but when a siege takes
place, and terrors begin, it fills with water, which supplies the
people till peace is made, when the water again disappears."
(Dim., 199.)
Abu-1 P'ida, writing in 1321, a few years later than Dimashki,
298 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
says : " Ba'albakk, in the Damascus Province, lies among the
hills. It is a very ancient city, having walls and a strong fortress
very well built. It possesses trees, and streams, and springs, and
is filled with good things. Muhallabi says that of old it was a
very beautiful city, being the place of sacrifice of the Sabseans.
One of their temples, which was held in high honour, was here.
From Ba'albakk to Az Zabadani is 18 miles." (A. F., 255.)
Ba'albakk was visited in 1355 by Ibn Batutah. He describes
it as "a fine city, surrounded by gardens and orchards that
almost equal those of Damascus. There are here cherries called
Habb al Muluk (King's Cherries), such as are found nowhere else.
There is, too, a kind of Dibs (molasses), called after Ba'albakk,
which is a syrup made from raisins, and they add thereto a
powder which makes it harden. Afterwards they break the pot
in which it is made, and it remains all of one piece. From it is
made a sweetmeat called Al Halwah, by putting in pistachios and
almonds. This sweetmeat is named also Al Mulabban. They
call it also Jald al Faras (Penis equi\ They make in Ba'albakk
stuffs for clothes, also wooden platters and spoons. These last
are made to fit one inside the other, in nests, to the number of
ten." (I. B., i. 185.)
BAIT LAHM (ttETHLEHb.M ).
"The village of Bait Lahm lies 6 miles to the south of
Jerusalem. It is the birthplace of Jesus, and there is shown here
in the church a portion of the palm-tree from the fruit of which
Mary ate. This is much venerated, and is preserved with every
care." (Is., 57 ; I. H., 112; copied by A. F., 141.)
"Bait Lahm," says Mukaddasi, "is a village about a league
from Jerusalem, in the direction of Hebron. Jesus was born
here, whereupon there grew up here the palm-tree (mentioned in
the Kuran, xix. 25) ; for although in this district palms are never
found, this one grew by a miracle. There is also a church (the
Basilica of Constantine), the equal of which does not exist any-
where in the country round." (Muk., 172.)
The traveller Nasir-i-Khusrau visited Bethlehem in 1047. He
writes in his Diary : " At the distance of a league from the Holy
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 299
City is a place belonging to the Christians, which they hold in
greatest veneration ; and there are always numerous pilgrims of
their people who come hither to perform the visitation. The
place is called Bait al Lahm (Bethlehem). The Christians hold a
festival here, and many will come for it all the way from Rum (or
the Greek Empire). The day I myself left the Holy City I
passed the night at Bethlehem." (N. Kh., 53.)
Idrisi, in 1154, gives the following account of Bethlehem,
derived probably from Christian pilgrims whom he met in Sicily :
" Bait Lahm is the place where the Lord Messiah was born, and
it lies 6 miles distant from Jerusalem. Half-way down the road
is the tomb of Rachel (Rahil), the mother of Joseph and of
Benjamin, the two sons of Jacob peace upon them all ! The
tomb is covered by twelve stones, and above it is a dome vaulted
over with stones. At Bethlehem is a church that is beautifully
built, of solid foundation, spacious, and finely-ornamented even
to the uttermost, so that nowhere among all other churches can
be seen its equal. It is situated in a low-lying piece of ground.
The gate thereof is towards the west, and there are (in the
church) marble columns of perfect beauty. In one angle of the
choir (al Haikal\ towards the north, is a cave wherein the Lord
Messiah was born. It lies below the church, and in this cave is
the manger wherein the Messiah was found. As you go out from
Bethlehem, you see towards the east the Church of the Angels,
who told the good news of the birth of the Lord Messiah to the
shepherds." (Id., 9.)
" Between Jerusalem and Bethlehem," writes 'AH of Herat,
" is the tomb of Rahil (Rachel), mother of Joseph. Bait Lahm
is the name of the village where Jesus was born. There are here
the tombs of David and Solomon peace be on them both !
There is also a church most wonderfully built with marble, and
gold mosaics, and columns. The date of its building is more
than 1 200 years ago,* as is shown by an inscription on a wooden
beam, which has not suffered damage even down to our own days.
There is here the place of the palm-tree mentioned in the Kuran,
* The Basilica was built by Constantine about 330 A.D.
300 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
also the Mihrab of the Khalif 'Omar, which has in no wise been
damaged by the Franks." (A. H., Oxf. MS., folio 41 v.)
" Bait Lahm," writes Yakut in the thirteenth century, " is the
place where Jesus was born.* It is a town near Jerusalem.
There are fine markets here. There was here the palm-tree men-
tioned in the Kuran. Palms do net come to maturity in these
regions, and this one is an exception. It is mentioned in the
Kuran, and gave dates to Mary when she fled into Egypt, being a
miracle vouchsafed to her so runs the legend. There is here a
Church, the like of which is none other in the country round.
When the Khalif 'Omar was come to Jerusalem, a monk of Bait
Lahm approached him and said, * I would obtain mercy of thee
for Bait Lahm.' Said 'Omar, 'I know nought of the place, but
would fain see it.' When 'Omar was come there, he said to the
people, ' Ye shall have mercy and safe conduct, but it is incum-
bent upon us that in every place where there are Christians
we should erect a mosque.' The monk answered, * There is in
Bait Lahm an arched building (Haniyyah\ which is built so as to
be turned towards your KibJah ; take this, therefore, and make of
it a mosque for the Muslims, and do not destroy the church.' So
'Omar spared the church, saying his prayer in that arched building,
and made of it a mosque, laying on the Christians the service of
lighting it with lamps and keeping the building clean and in
repair. The Muslims have never ceased to visit Bait Lahm
(in pilgrimage), and go to this arched building to make their
prayers therein, one generation after the other, which same is the
building of 'Omar. It is well known by this name down to the
present day, for the Franks (Crusaders) changed nought when
they took the country. They say there are here the tombs of
David and of Solomon peace be on them!" (Yak., i. 779;
Mar., i. 187.)
* It is, perhaps, not uninteresting to note that Yakut also speaks of Ahnas,
in Egypt, to the west of the Nile, and not far from Fustat (old Cairo), as the
place where the Messiah was said to have been born. " Mary, furthtr, remained
there till He was grown and then set out for Syria." (Yak., i. 409; Mar., i. 105.)
The palm-tree mentioned in the Koran, xix. 25, was, writes Yakut, shown here.
LEGENDS AND MARVELS. 301
NASIRAH (NAZARETH).
Mas'udi in 943 writes :
"It is said that the Messiah lived at a village called Nasirah,
which is in the district of Al Lajjtin (Legio, Megiddo) of the
Jordan Province ; also that the Christians (An Nasraniyyah) are
called so from this place. I myself have seen in this village a
church greatly venerated by the Christians. There are here sarco-
phagi of stone, in which are dead men's bones, and from out these
flows a thick oil, like syrup, with which the Christians anoint them-
selves for a blessing." (Mas., i. 123.)
"An Nasirah," writes 'AH of Herat in 1173, "is the city in
which is the house of Maryam, daughter of 'Amran, and from here
she came. The Christians are called after this place. Jabal Sa'ir
is near by." (A. H., Oxf. MS., folio 31.)
" An Nasirah," says Yakut, "is a village lying 13 miles distant
from Tabariyyah. Here was born the Messiah 5 Isa (Jesus), the
Son of Maryam peace be upon Him ! and from the name ot
Nasirah comes the name of the Nasariyyah (Nazarenes, or Chris-
tians). But the people of this place cast dishonour upon Maryam,
saying that from all time no virgin had ever borne a child. They
have there an orange tree, after the likeness of a woman. This
orange-tree has two breasts, and what resembles hands and feet,
and the nether parts also are as those of a woman ; also the
government of this place is with the women. The orange-tree is
(as a holy relic), procuring blessings to the people from Heaven,
and none of the people of Nazareth reject participation therein.
The people of Jerusalem, however, deny all this, and say that the
Messiah was born in Bethlehem, of which fact they have manifest
relics among them. Further, they say that His mother took Him
and went to dwell in this village (of Nasirah). I, Yakut, may add
that the text of the Evangel is that 'Isa (Jesus) peace be upon
Him ! was born in Bethlehem ; but that Yusuf, the husband of
Maryam, feared the wiles of Harudus (Herod), King of the
Magians ; and he came to know in a dream that he must carry his
Son down into Egypt for a time, until it should be again com-
manded him to return with the child And so it was that it might
3 02 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
be fulfilled what the Lord had made known by the tongue of the
Prophet when He spake, ' Verily, I will call my Son out Egypt.'
So Joseph remained in Egypt till Harudus was dead ; then he
received in a dream the order to return to the land of the Bani
Israil. He arrived at the Holy City, but feared to remain there,
it having been the place of dwelling of Hartidus ; then it was
revealed to him again in a dream that he should depart into Al
Jalil (Galilee), and he went there, and settled in the town called
Nasirah." (Yak., iv. 729 ; Mar., iii. 190.)
"An Nasirah," says Dimashki, "belongs to the Safad Province.
It is a Hebrew city, and was called Sa'ir (Seir). Here the Messiah
appeared, it being also the place where the angels announced His
birth to Mary. It is a well-known place of pilgrimage for the
Christians, and is mentioned in the Pentateuch. Jabal as Sa'ir
(Mount Seir, mentioned in the Kuran) is the mountain of Nazareth.
The people of Nazareth were those who first became Christians.
The Arab population of Nazareth were Yamanite tribes, while
those of Kafar Kanna were Kaisites." (Dim., 212.)
CHAPTER VIII.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS.
Ar Ramlah, founded by the Khalif Sulaiman The White Mosque. Hebron :
The Tombs of the Patriarchs Visits to the Cave of Machpelah Inven-
tion of the Tomb of Joseph. Acre ('Akkah) : Construction of the Port
by Ibn Tiilun. Tiberias (Tabariyyah) : The Thermal Springs and Baths
The Tomb of David.
AR RAMLAH.
" THE capital of the Province of Filastin ; it was founded by the
Khalif Sulaiman. The inhabitants of Ludd (Lydda) the former
capital were removed hither, and Lydda fell to decay. It has a
small river, the water of which the inhabitants drink ; the river
Abu Futrus is 1 2 miles off. The population of Ar Ramlah obtain
also their drinking-water both from wells and from cisterns, where
they store up the rains. The population of Ar Ramlah is mixed
Arabs and Greeks, also Samaritans." (Yb., 116.)
"The Khalif al Walid," says Biladhuri, "made his brother
Sulaiman Governor of the Province of Filastin, who took up his
residence at Lydda. Sulaiman subsequently founded the town of
Ar Ramlah, and made it his capital. The first building raised
here was his palace (kasr), and the house called Dar as Sabbaghin
(the House of the Dyers). In this last he constructed a huge
cistern to serve to store water. Then Sulaiman planned the
Mosque, and began to build it, but he succeeded to the Khalifate
before it was completed.
" Others of the Khalifs after him continued the building. The
Khalif 'Omar ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz finished it, but only after having
diminished the original plan, and he said, 'The people of Ar
304 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Ramlah should be content with the size thereof to which I have
diminished it.' Now when Sulaiman was building his own palaces,
he gave leave to the people to build houses for themselves also,
and so they did. And he dug for the people of Ar Ramlah the
water-channel called Baradah, and he also dug wells for sweet
water.
" Sulaiman appointed as his secretary to oversee the expenses
of his buildings in Ar Ramlah and for the Jami' Mosque a certain
Christian of Lydda called Al Batrik ibn an Nakah (or Al Bakah).
Ar Ramlah had not existed before the days of Sulaiman, and the
place was all sandy (as the name Ar Ramlah shows). The Dar
as Sabbagh came afterwards by inheritance to the Abbaside Salih
ibn 'AH ibn 'Abd Allah ibn al 'Abbas, for it was taken with their
other possessions from the Bani Omayyah. Now the Bani
Omayyah had spent much money on the wells of Ar Ramlah,
and the water-channels, after Sulaiman's days, and when the
Abbasides came to reign, they also spent large sums thereon
and so from one Khalif on to another. So matters stood until
the days of the Khalif Al Mu'tasim-billah, and he gave a per-
manent decree for these expenses, and in order to save the con-
tinual petitions there anent, commuted the grant into an annual
charge to be defrayed by the tax-farmers, and to be accounted for
by them." (Bil., 143, repeated by I. F., 102, and copied into
Yak., ii. 817.)
'* Ar Ramlah," says Mukaddasi in the tenth century, " is the
capital of Palestine. It is a fine city, and well built ; its water is
good and plentiful ; its fruits are abundant. It combines manifold
advantages, situated as it is in the midst of beautiful villages and
lordly towns, near to holy places and pleasant hamlets. Com-
merce here is prosperous, and the markets excellent. There is
no finer mosque in Islam than the one in this city. The bread is
of the best and the whitest. The lands are well favoured above
all others, and the fruits are of the most luscious. This capital
stands among fruitful fields, walled towns, and serviceable hospices.
It possesses magnificent hostelries and pleasant baths, dainty food
and various condiments, spacious houses, fine mosques, and brond
roads. As a capital it possesses many advantages. It is situatcc
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 305
on the plain, and is yet near both to the mountains and the sea.
There grow both fig-trees and palms ; its fields need no irrigation,
and are by nature fruitful and rich. The disadvantages, on the
other hand, are that in winter the place is a slough of mud ;
while in summer it is a powder-box of sand, where no water flows,
neither is anything green, nor is the soil humid, nor does snow
ever fall. Fleas here abound. The wells are deep and salt, and
the rain-water is hoarded in closed cisterns hence the poor go
thirsty, and strangers seek water in vain. In the baths a fee has
to be paid before the servants will turn the water-wheels. The
city occupies the area of a square mile ; its houses are built of
finely-quarried stones. The best known among its gates are the
Gate of the Soldier's Well (Darb Bir al *Askar\ the Gate of the
'Annabah Mosque, the Gate of Jerusalem, the Gate of Bila'ah,
the Lydda Gate (Darb Ludd\ the Jaffa Gate (Darb Yafa\ the
Egypt Gate (Darb Misr), and the Dajun Gate. Close to Ar
Ramlah is the town of Dajun, with its mosque. It is inhabited
mostly by Samaritans. The chief mosque of Ar Ramlah is in
the market, and it is even more beautiful and graceful than that
of Damascus. It is called Al Abyad (the White Mosque). In
all Islam there is found no finer Mihrab than the one here, and
its pulpit is the most splendid to be seen after that of Jerusalem ;
also it possesses a beautiful minaret, built by the Khalif Hisham
ibn 'Abd al Malik. I have heard my uncle relate that when this
Khalif was about to build the minaret, it was reported to him
that the Christians possessed columns of marble, at this time lying
buried beneath the sand, which they had prepared for the
Church of Bali'ah. Thereupon the Khalif Hisham informed the
Christians that either they must show him where these columns
lay, or that he would demolish their church at Lydda, and employ
its columns for the building of his mosque. So the Christians
pointed out where they had buried their columns. They are very
thick, and tall, and beautiful. The covered portion (or main-
building) of the mosque is flagged with marble, and the court
with other stone, all carefully laid together. The gates of the
main-building are made of cypress-wood and cedar, carved in the
inner parts, and very beautiful in appearance." (Muk., 164.)
20
306 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
In his introductory chapter, Mukaddasi writes :
" If Ar Ramlah had only running water, the town would be,
without compare, the finest in Islam ; for it is a pleasant and a
fine city, standing between Jerusalem and the frontier towns,
between the Ghaur of the Jordan and the sea. Its climate is
mild ; its fruits are luscious ; its people generous being, however,
also rather foolish. It is the emporium for Egypt, and an excellent
commercial station for two seas." (Muk., 36.)
Most of the gates mentioned by Mukaddasi may be easily
identified. Regarding the Gate of the 'Annabah Mosque, it is to
be noted that the village of 'Annabah lies west of Ar Ramlah.
In St. Jerome's Onomasticon it is mentioned under the name of
Anab, which was also called Betho Annaba.*
The Gate of Ar Ramlah, called Darb Bila'ah, and the village
of Bali'ah, mentioned in the above account, refer probably (but
the reading is somewhat uncertain) to the BibJical " Baalah.
which is Kirjath Jearim " (Joshua xv. 9). This place has been
identified with the modern Kari'at al 'Inab (see Part II.), where
may still be seen the ruins of the Church of St. Jeremiah, possibly
the one alluded to by Mukaddasi.
The next account of Ramlah is from the Diary of Nasir-i-
Khusrau, who visited the city in 1047. He writes :
" Sunday, the day of the new moon of the month of Ramadan
(March i), we came to Ramlah. From Caesarea to Ramlah is
8 leagues. Ramlah is a great city, with strong walls built of
stone, mortared, of great height and thickness, with iron gates
opening therein. From the town to the sea-coast is a distance of
3 leagues. The inhabitants get their water from the rainfall, and
in each house is a tank for storing the same, in order that there
may always be a supply. In the middle of the Friday Mosque,
also, is a large tank; and from it, when it is filled with water,
anyone who wishes may take. The area of the mosque measures
200 paces by 300 paces. Over one of its porches is an inscription,
stating that on Muharram 15, of the year 425 (December 10,
* See further on the two places called Betho Annaba and Beth Annabam in
the Palestine Exploration Fund Special Papers, p. 250.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 307
1033), there was an earthquake* of great violence, which threw
down a large number of buildings, but that no single person
sustained- any injury. In the city of Ramlah there is marble in
plenty, and most of the buildings and private houses are of this
material ; and, further, the surface thereof they do most beautifully
sculpture and ornament. They cut the marble here with a tooth-
less saw, which is worked with * Makkah sand.' They saw the
marble not in the cross, but in the length as is the case with
wood to form the columns ; also, they cut it into slabs. The
marbles that I saw here were of all colours, some variegated,
some green, red, black, and white. There is, too, at Ramlah a
particular kind of fig, than which no better exists anywhere, and
this they export to all the countries round. This city of Ramlah,
throughout Syria and the West, is known under the name of
Filastin, the name of the province being transferred to its capital
town." (N. Kh., 21.)
"Ar Ramlah," reports Idrisi, "is a fine and populous town,
having markets, and much merchandise and traffic." (Id., 4.)
Yakut repeats the account given by Biladhuri and Ibn al Fakih
(already quoted) of the foundation of Ar Ramlah by Sulaiman,
son of the Khalif 'Abd al Malik, and of his buildings there.
After stating that Sulaiman also laid the plan of the mosque, and
began to erect it, he continues :
" The immediate cause of the building of the mosque there
was this. A certain scribe of the name of Ibn Batrik demanded
of the people of Ludd that they should give him a certain house
that stood near the Church (of Lydda), in order that he might
turn it into an abode for himself. But the people refused it him.
Then said he, 'By Allah, then will I pull down that other !'
meaning the church. And so it came about, for at this time
Sulaiman was saying to himself, * Behold the Commander of the
Faithful that was namely, 'Abd al Malik did build in the
Mosque (or Haram Area) of the Holy City a Dome over the
Rock, and thereby obtained fame to himself; and, further, the
* This earthquake is mentioned by the Arab annalists, who state that a third
of Ramlah was thrown down, the mosque in particular being left a mere heap
of ruins. See p. 101.
2O 2
308 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Khalif Al Walid hath built a mosque in Damascus, and obtained
fame thereby unto himself also why should not I, too, build a
mosque and a city, and transport the people thither ? r So he
founded the city of Ar Ramlah, and built the mosque there ; and
this was the cause of the ruin of the city of Ludd (and of the
church there). Now, when Al Walid was dead, Sulaiman had
become Khalif. The land round these parts was sand, but
Sulaiman laid out the plan of the new city, and turned a place in
the town of Ar Ramlah that had belonged to the Dyers into wells
of sweet water ; for, be it known, Ar Ramlah did not exist before
the days of this Sulaiman. And he gave leave to the people to
build, and they built in the city ; and Sulaiman dug for them the
water channel which went by the name of Baradah. He dug
also wells of sweet water." The account goes on as given above,
p. 304, after which Yakut continues : "The drinking-water of the
people now (1225) is from wells that are brackish. Those who
are rich have a cistern, and lock it up. It may be noted that
most towns that have cisterns possess good fruits and a fine
climate (since there is no stagnant water). Saladin freed Ar
Ramlah in 583 (1187), but laid the town in ruins, fearing the
Franks should master the place a second time ; and it has
remained in a state of ruin down to the present day." (Yak ,
ii. 817 ; Mar., i. 483.)
Yakut states that " 'Askar is the name of one of the quarters of
Ar Ramlah." (Yak., iii. 674; Mar., ii. 258.) The name is men-
tioned also by Mukaddasi, and from it the Gate of Ramlah, called
Darb Bir al 'Askar, probably took its name. (See above, p. 305.)
Abu-1 Fida gives a summary of parts of the above, but adds
nothing new. (A. F. 241.)
Ramlah was visited by Ibn Batutah in 1355. He speaks of it
as : " A large town. There is here the Jami' al Abyad (the White
Mosque). They say that in the Kiblah part three hundred pro-
phets lie buried." (I. B , i. 128.)
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 309
HEBRON.
The Arabs gave this town the name of Masjid Ibrahim, or the
Mosque of Abraham, and also knew it as Habra, and Habrun.
"Masjid Ibrahim," write Istakhri and Ibn Haukal, in the eighth
century, " lies to the south of Bethlehem. In the Mosque, where
Friday prayer is said, are the tombs of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
They lie in a row, and beside each of these is placed the tomb of
his wife. This city lies in a valley between hills. It has many
trees round it. The trees here as also in other hilly parts of
Filastin are chiefly olive and fig-trees, also sycamores, vines and
carobs. Other species are of rare occurrence." (Is., 57 ; I. H. 1 13,)
Mukaddasi, writing in 985, says :
" Habra (Hebron) is the village of Abraham, the Friend of God.
Within it is a strong fortress, which, it is said, is of the building of
the Jinns, being of great squared stones. In the middle of this
place rises the Dome, built of stone and since the times of Islam
which covers the sepulchre of Abraham. The tomb of Isaac
lies forward, within the main-building of the Mosque, while that
of Jacob is in the building at the back. Near by to each of these
prophets lies his wife. The garden round has become the mosque-
court, and built in it are the rest-houses for the pilgrims, which
thus adjoin Sanctuary. Thither also has been conducted a small
water-channel. All the country round Hebron, for the distance of
half a stage, is filled with villages and vineyards, and grounds
bearing grapes and apples ; it is even as though it were all but a
single orchard of vines and fruit-trees. The district goes by the
name of Jabal Nusrah. Its equal for beauty does not exist else-
where, nor can any fruits be finer. A great part of them is sent
away to Egypt and into all the country round. At times, here,
apples of good quality will sell at a thousand for the Dirham (ten
pence), and the weight of a single apple occasionally will attain to
the equivalent of a hundred Dirhams (between ten and eleven
ounces). In the Sanctuary at Hebron is a public guest-house,
with a kitchener, a baker, and servants appointed thereto. These
present a dish of lentils and olive-oil to every poor pilgrim who
arrives, and it is even set before the rich if perchance they desife
3 io PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
to partake of it. Most men erroneously imagine that this dole is
of the original Guest-house of Abraham, but in truth the funds
come from the bequests of a certain (Companion of the Prophet)
Tamim ad Dari, and others It so being, in my opinion it were
better to abstain from receiving these alms (lest the money have
been unlawfully gained). Also there was once an Amir of Khu-
rasanmay Allah have confhmed his dominion ! who assigned
to this charity a thousand Dirhams \ early (or 40) ; and further,
Al 'Adil, the Shar, the Ruler of Ghurjistan, left great bequests to
this house. At the present day, in all Islam, I know of no charity
or almsgiving that is better regulated than is this one ; for those
who travel and are hungry may eat here of good food, and thus is
the custom of Abraham continued, for he, during his lifetime,
rejoiced in the giving of hospitality, and, after his death, Allah
may He be exalted ! has thus allowed the custom to be per-
petuated ; and I myself, Mukaddasi, in my travels, have thus
been a partaker, so to speak, of the hospitality of the Friend of
God." (Muk., 172.)
Nasir-i-Khusrau visited Hebron in 1047. T ne account in his
Diary is as follows :
" From Jerusalem to Hebron is six leagues, and the road runs
towards the south. Along the way are many villages with gardens
and cultivated fields. Such trees as need little water, as, for
example, the vine and the fig, the olive and the sumach, grow here
abundantly, and of their own accord.
" The people of Syria, and the inhabitants of the Holy City,
call the Sanctuary (or Mash-had at Hebron) Khalil (that is, ' the
Friend ' of Allah, Abraham) His blessing be upon him ! and
they never make use of the real name of the village, which name
is Matlun.* This Sanctuary has belonging to it very many villages
that provide revenues for pious purposes. At one of these villages
is a spring, where water flows out from under a stone, but in no
great abundance ; and it is conducted by a channel, cut in the
ground, to a place outside the town (of Hebron), where they have
* Hebron in the early Arab annals is given as divided into four quarters or
villages : Habrun, Martum, Bait 'Ainun, and Bait Ibrahim. Matlun is doubt-
less a corruption of the second of these names.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 311
constructed a covered tank for collecting the water, so that none
may run to waste, and that the people of the town, and the pil-
grims, may be able to supply their wants. The Sanctuary (Mash-
had] stands on the southern border of the town, and extends
towards the south-east.* The Sanctuary is enclosed by four walls,
built of squared masonry, and in its upper part (the area) measures
80 cubits long by 40 cubits across, f The height of the (exterior)
wal's is 20 cubits, and at their summit the width of the walls is
2 cubits. The Mihrab (or niche) and the Maksurah (or enclosed
space for Friday-prayers) stand in the width of the building (at
the south end).^ In the Maksurah are many fine Mihrabs. There
are two tombs occupying the Maksurah, laid so that their heads
lie towards the Kiblah-point (south). Both these tombs are
covered by cenotaphs, built of squared stone as high as a man.
That lying on the right hand (to the west, Plan, J) is the grave of
Isaac, son of Abraham ; and that on the left (or to the east,
Plan, I) is the grave of his wife (Rebecca) peace be upon them !
Between the two graves may measure the space of about 10 cubits.
In this part of the Sanctuary the floor and the walls are adorned
with precious carpets and Maghribi matting that is more costly
than brocade. I saw here a piece of matting, serving as a prayer-
rug, which they told me the Amir al Juyush (or Captain-General),
in the service of the Sultan of Egypt, had sent hither ; and they
said that at Cairo this prayer-rug had been bought for thirty gold
* The exact orientation of the quadrangle is fifty degrees true bearing, and
consequently the great Mihrab of the Kiblah-point lies almost exactly south-east.
t The exact dimensions externally of the Haram walls, as measured by their
Royal Highnesses Prince Albert Victor and Prince George of Wales, during
their visit in 1882, are 197 feet by in feet. Nasir's measurement is some-
what under the real size. The average height externally of the ancient (or
Herodian ?) walls is 40 feet, or 20 cubits, as stated in the text.
+ The present building, known as the Church, dates from the time of the
Crusaders. The building Nasir saw has disappeared. The late Mr. Fergusson
states in his book on The Holy Sepulchre and the Temple at Jerusalem^ p. 137
(Appendix J), "I ascertained with certainty that there was nothing inside the
enclosure older than the Crusades. The Gothic building which occupies the
whole of the southern end was certainly erected either in the last half of the
twelfth or the first half of the thirteenth century." The " Makstirah " of Nasir
is probably the same building as the " Dome " mentioned by Mukaddasi. See
P- 309.
312 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
REFERENCES TO THE PLAN OF THE SANCTUARY AT HEBRON
AT THE PRESENT DAY.
A. Entrance to the Western Cave.
B. Entrance to the Eastern Cave.
C. Hole in the floor, leading to a chamber.
D. Hole in the Wall, opening into the Western Cave.
E. Dome.
F. Greek Inscription.
G. Arabic Inscription, on a pier.
H. Greek Inscription, on the wall.
I. Cenotaph of Rebecca.
J. ,, of Isaac.
K. Mimbar, or Pulpit.
L. Reading-desk.
M. Cenotaph of Sarah.
N. ,, of Abraham.
O. ,, of Leah.
P. ,, of Jacob.
Q. Tomb of Joseph.
R. Door leading to the same.
S. Window opening into the same.
T. Pier.
U. Minaret.
V. Minaret.
W. Vestibule.
X. Entrance Gate.
HARAM AT HEBRON.
3 H PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Maghribi Dinars (or about ^15). Now, the same quantity of
Rumi (or Greek) brocade would not have cost so much, and the
equal of this mat I never saw elsewhere.
" Leaving the Maksurah, you find in the court of the Sanctuary
two buildings. Facing the Kiblah-point (south), the one lying
on the right hand (or to the west, Plan, N), contains the tomb of
Abraham, the Friend of Allah His blessing be upon him ! This
building is of such a size as to allow of there being within it
another building, which you cannot enter, but which has in its
walls four windows, through which the pilgrims, when standing
round it, may look and view the tomb that is within. The walls
and the floor of this chamber are covered with brocade stuffs, and
the cenotaph is made of stone, measuring 3 ells (in length), with
many silver lamps and lanterns hung above it. The other edifice,
lying on the left hand as you face the Kiblah (or on the eastern
side, Plan, M), has within it the Tomb of Sarah, the wife of
Abraham peace be upon him ! Between the two edifices is the
passage-way that leads to both, and this is like a hall, and here
also are suspended numerous lamps and lanterns.
" After passing by these two edifices, you come to two other
sepulchral chambers lying close one to another. That to the-
right (or on the west side. Plan, P), contains the Tomb of the
Prophet Jacob peace be upon him ! and that to the left (or east
side, Plan, O), the Tomb of his wife (Leah). Beyond this again
are other buildings, where Abraham the blessing of Allah be
upon him ! was wont to dispense his hospitality ; but within the
Sanctuary there are these six tombs only. Outside the four walls
(of the Sanctuary) the ground slopes away, and here on the (west)
side (Plan, Q) is the sepulchre of Joseph, the son of Jacob peace
be upon them both ! over whose gravestone they have built a
beautiful dome. On this side, where the ground is level that is,
beyond the sepulchre of Joseph, and the Sanctuary lies a great
cemetery, whither they bring the dead from many parts to be
buried.
" On the flat roof of the Maksurah, in the (Hebron) Sanctuary,
they have built cells for the reception of the pilgrims who come
hither ; and the revenues of this charity are considerable, being
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 315
derived from villages and houses in the Holy City. They grow at
Hebron for the most part barley, wheat being rare ; but olives are
in abundance. The pilgrims, and voyagers, and other guests (of
the Sanctuary) are given bread and olives. There are very many
mills here, worked by oxen and mules, that all day long grind the
flour ; and, further, there are slave-girls who, during the whole day,
are baking the bread. The loaves they make here are each of
them of a Mann weight (or about three pounds), and to every
person who arrives they give daily a loaf of bread, and a dish of
lentils cooked in olive-oil, also some raisins. This practice has
been in usage from the days of (Abraham) the Friend of the
Merciful peace be upon him ! even down to the present hour ;
and there are some days when as many as five hundred pilgrims
arrive, to each of whom this hospitality is offered
" It is said that in early times the Sanctuary (at Hebron) had
no door into it, and hence that no one could come nearer to (the
tombs) than the outer porch, whence, from outside, they per-
formed their visitation. When, however, the (Fatimite Khalif)
Mahdi came to the throne of Egypt (in A.D. 918), he gave orders
that a door should be opened (into the Sanctuary), and he pro-
vided utensils and carpets and rugs, besides causing many (con-
venient) edifices to be built. The entrance-door of the Sanctuary
is in the middle of the northern wall, and is four ells above the
ground. On either side of it are stone steps, one stairway for
going up, and one for coming down ; and the gateway is closed
by a small iron door." (Kh., 53-58.)
It is worthy of note that the only doorway that pierces the
Haram walls at the present day is that found at about the centre
of the eastern wall. As, however, the Kiblah point is really south-
east though Nasir always speaks of it as south the long wall of
the Haram on the left-hand (facing the Kiblah) is, in truth, the
north-east wall, and a door in it might be said to face north, for
north-east.
In 1099 Hebron came into the hands of the Crusaders, and
was bestowed a year later by Godfrey de Bouillon in fief on
Gerhard d'Avennes.
Idrisi, writing in 1154, has the following account :
Ji6 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
"Masjid Ibrahim lies about 1 8 miles to the south of Beth-
lehem. It is a village that has become a city. In its mosque are
the tombs of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob peace be upon them !
and over against each is the tomb of his wife, as a companion
thereto. The town lies in a valley, between the hills, possessing
trees of all sorts, such as olives and figs and sycamores, and
many kinds of fruits." (Id , 9.)
'AH of Herat, writing in 1173, fifteen years before Hebron was
retaken by Saladin, gives the following account of what he himself
saw at Hebron some years before, while the town was still in the
hands of the Crusaders. 'Ali's account has been copied by Yakut
(Yak., ii. 468) ; the present translation is made from the text of
the Oxford Manuscript of 'Ali's work (folios 43-45).
" At Hebron, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Sarah are buried, as
also, it is said, are Adam, Noah, and Shem.
" When I was at Alexandria in the year 570 (1175 A.D., other
MSS. give A.M. 575), I heard a book read in the presence of the
Shaikh Hafiz Abu Tahir as Salafi, but the name of the author of
the work has now escaped me. And by mischance all my books
were taken from me by the Franks, at the time of the battle of
Khuwailifah, when they fought under the command of Al Inkitar
(Richard Coeur de Lion), the King of the Franks. His mes-
sengers came to me afterwards, and promised the return of what
had been seized, and even the double of it should be given me ;
but he desired as a condition that I should go and join him, and
that I would not consent to do. All this took place in the year
588(1192).
"In the work above mentioned, the author states that a certain
man, being of a mind to make his visitation at Hebron, gave large
sums in presents to the guardians (of the shrine), and had asked
one of them, who was a Greek, whether it were not possible for
him to take him down to see the (body of the) Patriarchs on
whom be peace ! The man replied that at that time it was not
possible, but that if he would wait till the press of pilgrims was
over, that he could then do it. And so (when the time of the
pilgrimage) was passed, the guardian raised up a stone flag (in the
floor of the Mosque), and taking a lamp with him, he and the
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 317
other descended some seventy stops to a spacious <u\vrn. The
air here was blowing freely, and then.- was a platform on which
lay extended (the body of) Abraham peace be on him ! clothed
in green garments, and the wind as it blew tossed about his white-
locks. At his side lay Isaac and Jacob. And the guide went on
with him to a wall in the cavern, telling him that behind the
wall lay Sarah, and he had in intention to show him what was
beyond the wall, but lo ! a voice cried out, saying, ' Beware, for it
is the Haram /' The narrator added that he returned, and came
up by the way he had gone down.
" I have read in the books of Moses that Al Khalil (Abraham,
the friend of God) bought a piece of ground from Afrun ibn Suhar
al Haithi (Ephron, the son of Sochar the Hittite) for 400 Dirhams
of silver, and buried therein Sarah. Such is the account in the
Pentateuch, but Allah alone knows the truth.
"And I, 'Ali of Herat may Allah pardon x me my sins ! do
relate the following of my own experience :
" I went to Jerusalem in the year 567 (1172), and both there
and at Hebron I made the acquaintance of certain Shaikhs, who
informed me that [in the year 513 (1119)]* during the reign of
King Bardawil (Baldwin II.) a certain part over the Cave of
Abraham had given way, and that a number of the Franks had,
by the King's permission, made their entrance therein. And they
discovered (the bodies of) Abraham and Isaac and Jacob peace be
upon them ! their shrouds having fallen to pieces, lying propped
up against a wall. Over each of their heads were napkins [cr
lamps], and their heads were uncovered. Then the King, after
providing new shrouds, caused the place to be closed once more.
And this was in the year 513 (1119).
"The Knight Babun (other MS. Birun), who dwelt in Bait Lahm
(Bethlehem), and held a high position among the Franks, on
account of his knightly deeds and valour, related to me that he
had entered this cave with his father. And he saw Abraham the
friend and Isaac and Jacob peace be upon them ! and their
heads were uncovered. Now I said to him, ' What was thy age
* The words in square brackets [ ] are inserted from Yakut's text, and are
not found in the Oxford MS.
ji8 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
at this time ?' and he answered, ' Thirteen years.' Further, he
told me that the Knight Jufri (Geofrey) ibn Jarj (George) was one
of those whom King (Baldwin) commissioned with the renewal of
the Patriarch's garments, and with the rebuilding of such of the
edifice as had given way, and further, that this Jufri was still alive.
Subsequently I inquired after him, but was told he had died a
short time before. Now I, 'AH of Herat, do say, verily and of a
truth, I myself have thus seen one who himself saw Abraham and
Isaac and Jacob peace be upon them all !"
In confirmation of 'Ali's account of the opening of the Cave of
Machpelah, the following note is to be found in Ibn al Athir's
Chronicle under the year 513 (1119;, that is, in the very year
mentioned by 'Ali :
" In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham, and those of
his two sons Isaac and Jacob, at a place near the Holy City.
Many people saw the Patriarchs. Their limbs had nowise been
disturbed, and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of
silver."*
Yakut, besides quoting much of the above narrative from 'Ali
of Herat, gives the following traditional account of the early
history of Hebron :
" Habrun is the name of the village near Jerusalem where
Abraham is buried ; and Abraham's name, Al Khalil (the Friend),
has taken the place of the name Habrun. The town is also called
Habra. The building here was erected by Solomon. According
to Ka'ab al Hibr,f the first who died and was buried here was
Sarah ; and Abraham, wishing a place to bury her in, bought this
spot near Habra for 50 Dirhams, and in those days the Dirham
was worth 5 Dirhams of the present time. Sarah was thus buried
here, and subsequently Abraham, Rebecca, Isaac, Jacob, and
Leah (Li'ya or lliyah). Solomon, by Divine revelation, and directed
* All the extant notices of visits to the sepulchres of the Patriarchs of
Hebron are brought together and discussed by Comte Riant, in a paper in
vol. ii., p. 411, of the Archives de F Orient Lat'.n, 1884. On Hebron in general,
the note given by M. Quatremere in the Appendix (p. 239) in vol. i., part 2, of
his Histoire des Sultans Mainlouks (one of the most useful of the Oriental
Translation Fund publications), may with advantage be consulted.
t On this personage see p. 142.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 319
by a light from heaven, began to build at Ar Rdmah, a village on
a hill overlooking Habra ; then God said, 'Not here, for behold
the light in the heavens, is it not above Habra, above the cave ?'
So Solomon built over the cave the enclosure now seen there. In
this cave was the tomb of Adam, and behind the enclosure is that
of Joseph. Joseph's body was brought hither by Moses, having
at first been buried in the middle of the Nile. The cave is under
the earth, the enclosure is above and around it, most strongly
built.
" Hebron was given in fief by the Prophet to (his Companion)
Tamim ad Dari and his family. There are named in the deed,
Bait 'Ainun, Habrun, Al Martum, and Bait Ibrahim. These and
all their dependencies were granted to Tamim." (Yak., ii. 194 ;
Mar., i. 284.)
Abu-1 Fida gives a short account of Hebron, but adds nothing
to the foregoing. (A. F., 241.)
The traveller Ibn Batutah visited Hebron in 1355, and we find
in his Diary the following notice of the place :
"The (Haram) Mosque at Hebron is built of hewn stone, and
one stone is 37 spans (shibr) in length. The Haram is said to
have been built by Solomon, aided by the Jinns. Within is the
holy cave, where are the tombs of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ;
opposite lie the tombs of their wives.
" To the right of the Mimbar (pulpit), and close to the southern
outer wall, is a place where you may descend by solidly-built
marble steps, leading to a narrow passage, and this opens into a
chamber paved with marble. Here are the cenotaphs of the
three tombs. They say that the bodies lie immediately adjacent
(beneath), and that hereby was originally the passage down to the
blessed cave. At the present time, however, this (passage) is
closed. To this (first chamber) I myself descended many
times."
Next follow proofs that these are the real tombs, quotations
being given from the Hadith, or Traditions of the Prophet. Ibn
Batutah adds that the tomb of Joseph is also seen in the mosque
at Hebron. (I. B., i. 114, 115.)
Ishak al Khalili (of Hebron), who wrote in 1351, records the
320 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
following on the tombs of the patriarchs. His account has been
copied verbatim by later writers, notably by Suyuti in 1470 (see
J. R. A. S., new series, vol. xix., p. 290), and by Mujir ad Din in
1496 (Cairo Text, p. 41) :
"Muhammad ibn Bakran ibn Muham-mad al Khatib, who was
Preacher of Abraham's Sanctuary, has reported as having heard
Muhammad ibn Ahmad, the grammarian, relate the following,
which is given in his own words : ' Once I went with the Kadi
Abu 'Amr 'Othman ibn Ja'far ibn Shadhan to visit the tomb of
Abraham upon him peace! We had sojourned there for the
space of three days, when, on the fourth, the Kadi approached
the inscription which is facing the tomb of Rebecca, Isaac's wife,
and ordered it to be washed, that the writing thereon might be
made clear ; and he set me to copy all that was on the stone, in
exact facsimile, on a roll of paper that we had brought. And
after this he returned to Ar Ramlah, where he brought together
men of all tongues, in order to read what was thereon ; but no
one was able to interpret it. But all agreed that the same was in
the language of the ancient Greeks ; and that if any there were
who knew how to read it, it would be a certain Shaikh of Aleppo.
So the Kadi Abu 'Amr sent expressly to this Shaikh, requesting
his presence at Ar Ramlah ; and when he had arrived, he caused
me also to be present. And behold he that was come was a very
ancient man ; and this Shaikh from Aleppo dictated to me as
follows, being the translation of what I had copied : In the dirine
and adored Name, the sublime, the mighty, the well-directing, the
strong, the powerful ! Verily the mound which /< facing this is tJie
Tomb of Rebecca, the wife of Isaac, and that which lies near thereto
is the Tomb of Isaac. The great mound over against this is the
Tomb of Abraham the Friend, and the mound which faces it on the
eastern side is the Tomb of Sarah his wife. TJie further mound,
which lies beyond that of the Tomb of Abraham the Friend, is the
Tomb of Jacob, and the mound adjoining it is the Tomb of Iliya
(Leah], Jacob's wife. And Esau wrote this with his own hand.
" ' Further,* Muhammad ibn Bakran speaks of another manu-
script, and that the copy of the inscription cut on the above-
* This second account is omitted by Suyuti.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS A\'D CHIEF TOWNS. 321
mentioned stone, lying to the east, stated that the head of Adam-
peace be on him ! lay below it. The interpretation of the inscrip-
tion was as follows : /// the divine and adored Name, the high, the
/nighty, the victorious, the strong, the puissant ! This mound which
lies near this inscription is the Tomb of Rebecca, the wife of Isaac,
and the mound thereto adjacent westwards is t/ie Tomb of Isaac,
The great mound which lies on the opposite side, and corresponding
thereto, is the Tomb of Abraham, and the mound which is facing
this to the east thereof is the Tomb of his wife Sarah. The mound
that lies farthest off, but in a line with the Tomb of Abraham the
Friend, is the Tomb of Jacob, and the mound adjacent ifiereunto and
to the east thereof, is the Tomb of his wife Illy A the benediction of
Allah and His mercy and His blessing be upon them all I for purity
lieth in His grace*
" These, then, are the two accounts. Muhammad ibn Bakran
al Khatib notes that the name of (Leah) Jacob's wife is lliya, but
that in some books her name is written Laya (or Liya), and she is
known also as Lika, but Allah alone knows the truth ! The Kadi
mentioned in the first account Abu 'Amr 'Othman ibn Ja'far ibn
Shadhan was a judge of high renown, and well known. The
narrator of the account, however, was not certain as to the exact
name of this Abu 'Amr's father. I have reason to believe that
he was 'Othman, son of Muhammad ibn Shadhan. He was Kadi
(judge) of Ar Ramlah during the Khalifnte of Ar Radi-billah, in
the year 320 and odd (A.D. 932), and during the following years.
He is an authority for traditions, which he held at many hands ;
and a great number of very learned tniditionists cite him for their
warranty.
" The Hafiz Ibn 'Asakir writes : In a certain book of traditions
I read and copied the following : Muhammad ibn Bakran ibn
Muhammad al Khatib who was Preacher of the Masjid of
Abraham the Friend (of Allah) states as having heard it from
Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn 'Ali ibn Ja'afar al Anbari, who him-
self had heard Abu Bakr al Askaf i give the following account :*
* With me it is of a surety that the tomb of Abraham is at the spot
* This is an amplified version of the account given by 'Ali of Herat. See
P- 3I5-
21
322 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
now shown as the same, for I have looked on the tomb and seen
his body with my own eyes. And it was after this manner : I had
expended great sums, amounting to nearly 4,000 dinars, on the holy
place and its guardians, hoping thereby to obtain favour of Allah
may He be exalted ! and I wished also to convince myself of the
exactitude of what was reported concerning (Abraham's tomb).
So when the hearts (of the guardians of the holy place) were won
by all that I had done there in the way of pious deeds and
generous giving, and in the making of presents, and honourably
entreating of them, and other such bounties I proposed to get
at the root of the truth which my heart desired to know. So, on
a certain day, I said to the guardians, when we were all assembled
together, " I would fain ask of you to conduct me to the door of
the cave, that I may descend therein and be a witness for myself
(of the tombs) of the prophets. The benediction of Allah and
His mercy be upon them !" The guardians answered me, "We
would certainly agree to do this for thee, for thou hast put us
greatly in thy debt ; but at this present time the matter is im-
possible, for travellers are constant in arriving. But do thou have
patience till the winter shall have come." So when the month of
the second Kanun (January) was entered, I went to them again ;
but they said to me, " Remain with us yet awhile until the snow
falls." So I remained with them till the snow fell. Now, when
the travellers had ceased coming, the guardians brought me to
where there is a stone which lies in the floor between the tomb of
Abraham the Friend and that of Isaac peace be on them both !
and they raised this slab, and one of them, a man of -the name
of Sa'luk, a just man, who did many pious works, prepared to
descend to guide me. So he descended, and I with him and
following him. We went down seventy-two steps, until we came
to a place on the right, where we saw, as it were, a great bier
built of black stones even like a merchant's stall in the bazaar
whereon was the body of an aged man, lying on his back, long-
bearded and hairy of cheek, with clothes of a green colour
clothing him. Said Sa'luk to me, "This is Isaac peace be on
him ! ' Then we went a little further, and came to a yet larger
bier than the first, and upon it, extended also on his back, lay an
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 323
aged man, the hair on his breast already whitened with age, and
his head, and beard, and eyebrows, and eyelashes white also.
He was clothed in green garments also, which covered his body
and also the greater part of the bier, and the wind blew about his.
white locks to right and to left. Said Sa'lftk to me, "This is
Abraham the Friend," and I threw myself upon my face glorifying
Allah may He be praised and magnified ! for what He had
vouchsafed to me. Then we continued on yet again, and came
to a smaller bier, on which lay an old man, with a face much
browned by the sun, and a thick beard. On his body there were
green clothes, which covered him. Said Sa'luk to me, "This
is Jacob, the Prophet on him be peace !" Then we turned to
go to the right, as though to go to the Haram.'
"At this point, says Muhammad al Anbari, Abu Bakr al
Askafi certified to me that his story must end. So I arose from
beside him, the time of the visit, and of his telling me of all this,
having drawn to a close. But at my next leisure I went to the
Masjid Ibrahim (Hebron) ; and, coming to the Mosque, inquired
for Sa'luk. Said they to me, ' Jn an hour he will be here.' And
when he came, I went to him ; and, sitting down beside him,
began to tell him part of the story (I had heard from his friend
Abu Bakr). But he looked on me with an eye that would have
denied all knowledge of the circumstances referred to by me.
Then I turned towards him to gain his favour, and showed him
that I was free of evil intent, for that Abu Bakr al Askafi was as
my paternal uncle ; so he at length began to incline to me. And
I said to him, * O Sa'luk, by Allah ! when ye did turn as though
to go towards the Haram, what happened, and what was it that ye
saw ?' And he said to me, * But did not Abu Bakr tell thee
thereof?' But I answered, ' I desire to hear of it from thee.'
Then said he, * We heard, as coming from out near the Haram, a
voice of one crying : Depart ye from the Haram ! and Allah hare
mercy on you ! And we both fell down, and lost all sense. After
a time, coming to ourselves again, we arose, but despaired of life,
and our companions (above) had despaired of seeing us also ever
again.'
" The Shaikh further told me that Abu Bakr al Askafi lived
21 2
324 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
on but a few days after he had related to him this account,
and Sa'luk, too, died shortly after Allah have mercy on them
both !"
. Suyuti in 1470 quotes, as already stated, the whole of the above
account. He gives, at the commencement of his thirteenth
chapter, the following tradition, which is doubtless derived from a
Rabbinical source :
" It is reported by Ibn 'Asakir, on a chain of tradition going
back to Ka'ab al Ahbar, that the first person who died and was
buried at Hebron was Sarah ;..*, then Abraham himself died,
and was buried at her side ; then Isaac's wife, Rebecca, died, and
was buried there, and later Isaac himself was buried beside his
wife. When Jacob died, he was buried at the mouth of the cave,
and when his wife Lika (Leah) came also to die, she was buried
beside him. Then the sons of Jacob met together, and also Esau
and his brethren, and they said, * Let us leave the entrance of the
cavern open, so that when any die he may be buried therein.'
But afterwards a dispute arose among them, and one of the
brothers of Esau or, as some say, one of the sons of Jacob
raised his hand and struck Esau a blow that caused his head to
fall off, and it rolled into the cave. And they carried away his
body and buried it without the head, for the head remained within
the cave.* And the cave they closed by a wall. Then over each
grave they erected a monument, inscribing on each severally, This
is the tomb of Abraham, This it, the tomb of Sarah, and so forth,
after which they all departed, closing the gates." (S., 289 ;
M. a. D., 41.)
Mujir ad Din, who wrote in 1496, inserts all the foregoing in
his work. He further made very careful measurements of the
Hebron Sanctuary, and has left a detailed description of the
buildings there, as they stood at the close of the fifteenth century.
Descriptions of the Hebron Haram at the present day correspond
very closely with this account, proving that since the time of Mujir
ad Din no very extensive alterations have taken place.
Nasir-i-Khusrau, as early as 1047, notices the Sepulchre of
* This is the Rabbinical tradition, found in the Babylonian Talmud. Sotah,
\. 13.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF WU'NS. 325
Joseph. kv on the west side" of the Haram at Hebron. ( )f the
first discovery of this sepulchre said to have taken place in the
early part of the tenth century A.D. Mujir ad Din gives an
account, of which the following is a translation :
" 'I 'he tomb of Joseph is in the plot of ground lying outside
Solomon's enclosure (the Haram). It stands opposite the torn!)
of Jacob, and is near that of his forefathers Abraham and Isaac.
Now Ibrahim ibn Ahmad al Khalanji states that he was requested
by one of (the Khalif*) Al Muktadir's women, Al 'Ajuz by name,
who was sojourning at the Holy City, to proceed to the place
where, according to the tradition, Joseph was buried, and having
discovered the sepulchre, to erect over it a building. So Al
Khalanji set forth with workmen, and they found the place where,
according to tradition, Joseph was buried, namely, outside the
enclosure (of Solomon), and opposite the tomb of Jacob, and
they bought the field from its owner, and began to lay it bare.
In the very place indicated by the tradition they came on a huge
and this, by order of Al Khalanji, was broken into. They
tore off a portion, ' and,' says Al Khalanji, ' I being with the
workmen in the trench when they raised up the fragment, lo ! here
lay (the body of) Joseph peace be upon him ! beautiful and
glorious to look on, as he is always represented to have been.
Now, first there arose from the place an odour of musk, following
it, however, came a strong wind ; so I caused the workmen to set
down into its place again the fragment of rock, to be as it had
been before.'
"And afterwards," Mujir ad Din continues, "they built over
this place the Dome which can be seen there to this day, in proof
that the tradition is a true one, and that the Patriarch is buried
beneath. This Dome stands without the walls of Solomon's
Enclosure, and to the west of it, being within the Madrasah (or
college), called after Al Malik an Nasir Hasan,t which at the
present day is called Al Kala'ah (the castle). You enter it
through the gate of the Mosque which opens towards the market,
and leads to the Eunuch's Spring ('Ain at Tawashi). It is a place
* He reigned from 908 to 932 A. i>.
f One of the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt. He was assassinated in 762 (1361).
326 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
much frequented (by pilgrims, who are shown) here the grave (of
Joseph;. One of the guardians of Hebron, Shihab ad Din
Ahmad al Yaghmuri* by name, pierced a gateway in the western
wall of (the Haram, which is) Solomon's Enclosure, and this
opens opposite to the tomb of our lord Joseph, fie also set a
cenotaph over this lower tomb, to mark the same, and to be
similar to those that are above the other graves of the Patriarchs
that lie in the Mosque (or Haram) of Abraham. This was done
during the reign of Sultan Barkuk."f (M. a. I)., 64.)
Of Mujir ad Din's description and measurements of the
Hebron Sanctuary in his own day, the following translation gives
the substance of the text printed in the Cairo edition (p. 56 et seq.}.
The letters in brackets refer to the plan facing p. 312 :
" Hebron Sanctuary ; measurements within the walls of
Solomon's building.
" The length from north to south, measuring from the back of
the Mihrab near the Mimbar (K) to the further end of the shrine
in which is the grave of Jacob (P), is 80 ells of the workman's ell
less about \ or of an ell.
"The breadth from east to west, measuring from the wall at
the entrance-gate to the back of the western colonnade (riwak) in
which is the window (shabbak) leading to the sepulchre of Joseph
(S), is 41 ells, plus about J or an ell the ell being that used by
the workmen of our day.
" The thickness of the wall on all sides is 3^ ells. The number
of the courses in its construction is fifteen in the highest portion,
which is that near the gate of the Kala'ah at the south-west corner
(near D), and the height of the wall here from the ground not
including the part built by the Greeks, which lies above Solomon's
wall is 26 ells. Among the stones used in Solomon's wall, there
is one near the Tabl Khanah (Drum House), the length of which
is 1 1 ells. The height ('ant) of each of the courses of Solomon's
walls is about i| ells. There are two minarets that rise from the
walls, one at the south-east angle (V), and the other at the north-
west angle (U), and these are beautifully built.
* Governor of Jerusalem and Hebron in 796 (1394).
f The Mamluk Sultan of Egypt who reigned 784-801 (1382-1399).
rROVINClAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 327
"As regards the description of the buildings, inside the walls
there is a vaulted building (the Church) occupying about half,
namely, the southern portion (of the area), and extending north-
ward. It dates from Greek times. It consists of three aisles,
and the middle aisle is higher than those that lie to the east
and west of it. The roof is supported on four well-built piers.
At the end of the middle aisle of this vaulted building is the
Mihrab, and beside it is the Mimbar (pulpit) of wood, made in the
reign of the Fatimite Khalif al Mustansir-billah, or order of Badr
al Jamali, in 484 (1091). It was brought here from Ascalon in
Saladin's time.
" In this part (i.e., the Church) are the tombs of Isaac, near the
pier beside the Mimbar (on the western side, at J) ; the tomb of
his wife Rebecca is opposite beside the eastern pier (at I). This
main-building (the Church) has three doors opening into the court
of the Mosque. The middle door leads into the Sanctuary of
Abraham. '1 his is a vaulted chamber of marble, with four walls.
On its western side is the cell (N) in which is the tomb of
Abraham, and corresponding on the east is the tomb of Sarah (M).
The second doorway (of the main-building), which is on the east,
and near the great entrance-gate in Solomon's wall, is behind
Sarah's tomb. The third doorway, to the west, is immediately
behind Abraham's tomb ; it leads into the colonnade. This gate*
was built by Shihdb ad Din al Yaghmiiri, who also pierced the
window in Solomon's wall opening into the place of Joseph's tomb,
and this during the reign of Sultan Barkuk in 796 (1394).
t% In the northern part of the enclosure of Solomon is the grave
of Jacob (P) lying on the western side, and in a line with Abraham's
tomb. Opposite this (O) on the eastern side is the tomb of his
wife Lika (Leah). The Court of the Mosque between the tomb
of Abraham and that of Jacob, is uncovered to the sky. The
domes over the patriarch's tombs are said to have been built in
the times of the Omayyad Khalifs."
All the above, written in the year 1 496, tallies exactly with the
present descriptions of the Hebron Sanctuary. (Cf, P.E.F.
Memoirs, iii. 337.)
* Now closed.
3 28 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
'AKKAH OR 'AKKA (ACRE).
" A city on the coast of the Jordan Province." (Yb., 115.)
Mukaddasi, writing in 985 A.D., gives the following interesting
description of the city :
"'Akka is a fortified city on the sea. The mosque here is very
large. In its court is a clump of olive-trees, the oil from which
suffices for the lamps of the mosque, and yet besides. This city
had remained unfortified until the time when Ibn Tulun (the
Ruler of Egypt) visited it, coming from Tyre, where he had seen
the fortifications and the walls which are there carried round so as
to protect the harbour. Then Ibn Tulun wished to construct at
'Akka a fortification that should be as impregnable as that of Tyre.
From all provinces artificers were brought together ; but when the
matter was laid before them, all averred that none in these days
knew how the foundations of a building could be laid in the water.
Then one mentioned to Ibn Tulun the name of my grandfather,
Abu Bakr, the architect, saying that if perchance any had know-
ledge in these matters, it would be he alone. So Ibn Tulun
wrote to his Lieutenant in Jerusalem commanding that he should
despatch my grandfather to him ; and on his arrival they laid the
affair before him. ' The matter is easy,' said my grandfather ;
'let them bring such sycamore beams as be large and strong.'
These beams he set to float on the surface of the water, as a pro-
longation of the town walls (seawards), and he bound them one to
the other ; while towards the west he left the opening for a mighty
gateway. And upon these beams he raised a structure with stones
and cement. After every five courses he strengthened the same
by setting in .great columns. At length the beams became so
weighted that they began to sink down ; but this was little by
little, and finally they rested on the sand. Then they ceased
building for a whole year, that the construction might consolidate
itself, after which, returning, they began again to build. And
from where it had been left off, continuing, my grandfather made
a junction between this and the ancient city walls, bringing the
new work right up into the old, and causing the two to join
together. Across the western gate of the port he built a bridge,
PROVINCIAL C.II'II ALS AND CHI El- TOWNS. 329
and every night when the ships had come within the harbour they
drew across the water-gate a chain, even as was the case at Tyre.
It is reported that my grandfather received for this matter the
sum of r,ooo Dinars (^500), besides robes of honour, horses, and
other gifts, and his name was inscribed over the work. Now,
before this harbour had been made the enemy were wont to take
advantage of the ships lying here to do them grievous damage."
(Muk., 162, 163.)
This account is quoted verbatim by Yakut (Yak., iii. 707, 708,
and Mar., ii. 271, in epitome), who adds that the inscription naming
Abu Bakr the architect still existed in the thirteenth century, when
he wrote. The method of building described, with stone-pillars
used, as 'through-bonds,' is one much used in later centuries by
the architects of the Crusaders. The remains of the double mole
forming the inner harbour at Acre may still be seen, though at the
present day these are almost entirely under water. (See Mem*.
of S. of W. P., vol. i., 1 60.)
Our next account of Acre is written by the Persian Pilgrim
Nasir, who visited the city in 1047 :
"After leaving Tyre, we travelled 7 leagues, and came to the
township of 'Akkah, which, in official documents, is named
Madinat 'Akkah. The city stands on an eminence, the ground
sloping, but in part it is level ; for all along this coast they only
build towns where there is an elevation, being in terror of an
encroachment of the waves of the sea. The Friday Mosque at
Acre is in the centre of the town, and rises taller than all the other
edifices. All its columns are of marble. To the right hand, out-
side the Mosque, and towards the Kiblah (south) is the tomb of
the Prophet Salih* peace be upon him ! The court of the
Mosque is partly paved with stone, and the other part is sown
with green herbs, for they say it was here that Adam peace be
upon him ! first practised husbandry. I made a measurement of
the city ; its length is 2,000 ells, and its breadth 500 ells. Its
walls are extremely strong; to the west and south lies the sea.
* According to the Kuran (vii. 71), Salih was the prophet sent to convert
the tribe of ThamCul. He is variously identified with the Peleg of Genesis
xi. 16, or the Salah of verse 12 of the same chapter.
330 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
On the southern side is what is called the Mina (or port). Now,
most of the towns upon this coast have a Mina, which same is a
place constructed for the harbouring of ships. It resembles, so to
speak, a stable, the back of which is towards the town, with the
side- walls stretching out into the sea. Seaward, for a space of
about 50 ells, there is no wall, but only chains, stretching from
one wall's end to the other. When they wish to let a ship come
into the Mina, they slack the chains until they have sunk beneath the
surface of the water sufficient to let the ship pass over them (into
the harbour) ; then they tighten up the chain again so as to prevent
any strange vessel coming in to make an attempt against the ships.
" Outside the eastern city gate, and on the left hand, is a spring,
to which you descend by twenty-six steps before reaching the
water. This they call the 'Ain al Bakar (the Ox Spring), relating
how it was Adam peace be upon him ! who discovered this
spring, and gave his oxen water therefrom, whence its name of the
Ox-Spring.
" When you leave this township of Acre and go eastwards, you
come to the mountain region (of Lower Galilee), where there are
various places of martyrdom of the prophets peace be upon
them ! and this region lies aside from the road of him who would
travel to Ramlah. . . . Here I went and visited the tomb of
'Akkah, who is the founder of the city of Acre, a very pious and
great personage." (N. Kh., 12-14.)
In 1104 King Baldwin and the Crusaders took Acre. Idrisi,
writing in 1154, but from the descriptions given him by other
travellers, remarks :
" 'Akkah is a large city, spaciously laid out, with many domains
round it. The city has a fine and safe port. The population is
of mixed (nationality and religion)." ild, 12.)
The next account is by 'Ali of Herat, who wrote in 1173. He
gives the following account of the celebrated Ox Spring, a site held
sacred by Jews, Muslims, and Christians alike, and a favourite
place of pilgrimage of those days. The Crusaders ultimately
turned the eastern part of the Mosque they found here into a
church.
"There is here (says 'Ali of Herat) the 'Ain al Bakar, from
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 331
whence came forth the oxen wherewith Adam ploughed the earth.
Over this spring is a Mashhad (or oratory) dedicated to 'AH ibn
Abu Talib (son-in-law of the Prophet). This the Franks wished
to turn into a church. And they set here (one day) a guardian
who was to superintend the building thereof and serve the place.
But on the morrow he came and said, ' I have seen (in my sleep)
a person who spake, saying, / am 'A/i ibn Abu Talib ; say now to
thy people that they shall leave this place to be a Mosque \ for other-
wise will I destroy thee? But when the guardian told his country-
men this they would not believe his words. And they set another
in his place ; but when the morrow came behold they found this
man dead. So the Franks abandoned their purpose, and it has
remained a Mosque even to the present time. They say that the
tomb of Salih is to the south of the Jami' (Mosque), but the truth
is otherwise. The tomb of 'Akk, or 'Akkah, from whom the city
is named, is also in the neighbourhood." (A. H., Oxf. MS.,
folio 32.)
Our next account of Acre is from the Spanish Arab Ibn Jubair,
who visited the city in 1185, a couple of years before the place
was retaken by Saladin. The following is a translation somewhat
condensed of those paragraphs of his diary which describe the
town :
" That night we stopped at one of the farmsteads, about a league
distant from 'Akkah. The head man there who was the inspector
of the affairs thereof for the Muslim landlord, and on behalf of
the Franks also, for whatever the farmers did there in the matter
of cultivation invited us as guests, and gave hospitality to all the
people of the caravan, both great and small, lodging us in a broad
gallery in his house and setting food before us. We remained
there that night and the next day entered 'Akkah. And they
brought us to the Diwan (Dogana, Custom-house) which is a Khan
prepared as the halting-place of caravans. Before the gate is a
carpeted platform on which sit the secretaries of the Diwan on the
part of the Christians, before desks of ebony ornamented with
gold work. These write in Arabic, and talk the language also, and
their head is the Sahib ad Diwan (Chief of the Customs), and they
take note of all that passes before them.
332 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" 'Akkah is the chief of the Frank cities of Syria, the great port
of the sea, and the great anchorage for their ships, being second
only to Constantinople. It is the meeting-place of Muslim and
Christian merchants of all lands. The place is full of pigs and of
crosses. The Franks took it from the Muslims in the first decade
of the sixth century (of the Hijrah). They turned the Mosque
into a church, and the Minaret into a bell-tower. But Allah has
granted that a part of the Jami' Mosque should still remain un-
desecrated in the hands of the Muslims, and here, as strangers,
they assemble to pray. Near the Mihrab of this is the tomb of
the Prophet Salih peace be upon him ! In the eastern part of
the town is the spring called 'Ain al Bakar (the Spring of the Ox),
it being that from which Allah caused the ox to come forth for
Adam peace be on him ! The descent to the spring is by polished
steps ; and over it stands a Mosque, the Mihrab of which remains
in good condition. To the east of it the Franks have built a
Mihrab (or oratory) for themselves, and Moslems and infidels
assemble together to make their prayers. But the place is in the
hands of the Christians, and by them is much honoured. We
stayed in 'Akkah two days, and then went to Sur (Tyre)." (I. J.,
306, 307.)
" The towns of 'Akkah and Sur have no gardens (immediately)
surrounding them ; they stand in a flat country and along the
shore of the sea. The fruits are brought into the town from the
gardens that are in the neighbourhood. Both towns possess broad
lands lying on the flanks of the mountain chain along the coast,
and these are occupied by farmsteads. Their produce is brought
into those cities ; and these lands are extremely rich. To the east
of 'Akkah and at the further end of the town is a Wadi, down
which flows a torrent of water, and on its banks, near the sea
(mouth) is a stretch of land than which none can be seen more
beautiful. No Maidan (or race-course) for horses can be finer.
The (Christian) Lords of the town go there evening and morning,
and the soldiers, also, for exercise." (I. J., 313, 314.)
'Akkah, according to Yakut (Yak., iii. 707-709), is the most
beautiful of the coast towns, and belongs to the Jordan Province.
He next quotes Mukaddasi, and continues: "The Khalif
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 333
Mu'awiyah of old gained -real glory by conquering 'Akkah and
the coast towns. He refortiiied both 'Akkah and Sur before he
set out to conquer Cyprus. After his days the fortification^ <!
'Akkah fell to ruin, and they were restored by the Khalif Hisham,
the son of 'Abd al Malik, and were the Frontier Fortresses of the
Jordan Province. All the artificers of the land (of Syria) lived here.
Then Hisham moved them all to Tyre, where they remained till
about the Khalif Al Muktadir's day (\ i>. 908-932), when they
were all dispersed on the coming of the Crusaders.
"The Franks besieged 'Akkah by land and by sea in 497
(1104), and took it, slaying many. The city remained in their
hands till Saladin retook it in 583 (1187); but the Franks (under
Richard Cceur de Lion) came against it again, and laid siege and
dug a ditch, even though Saladin came and encompassed them
without, and laid siege to the besiegers during the space of three
years. None the less, at last the Franks again took 'Akkah
from the hands of the Muslims in 587 (1191), and made captives
of nearly three thousand Muslims; so the city remains still in
their hands .to the present day."
Thus far Yakut, who wrote in 1225. The author of the Marasid,
who epitomized his work about the year 1300, adds :
"'Akkah was retaken from the Franks in 690 (1291) by Al
Malik al Ashraf ibn Kalaun (the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt ,
who made great slaughter of all the Christians here." (Mar.,
ii. 271.)
Yakut (Yak., iii. 758) and the author of the Marasid (Mar.
ii. 294) also mention the " Ox Spring," noting that it is held in
veneration by Muslims, Christians, and Jews alike, and give the
story of Adam's ox. Yakut adds that many other strange tradi-
tions are related of this spring.
A cursory notice of Acre is given by Dimashki (Dim., 2f3),
which adds nothing, however, to the foregoing. Abu-1 Fida,
writing in 1321, after a notice of the Ox Spring, continues :
"'Acre is a beautiful city. The people have their drinking-
water from an underground channel which comes into the town.
There is a fine and spacious port, and artisans are numerous here.
At the present day Acre is in ruins, having been brought bark
334 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
into the hands of the Muslims from the Franks in the year 690
(1291), and I myself was present at its capture, and had booty
therefrom." (A. R, 243.)
In 1355 Acre was visited by the traveller Ibn Batittah, who
reports (I. B., i. 129) the city to have been in ruins when he
visited it, "though formerly it was the Frank capital of Syria. "
He mentions cursorily the 'Ain al Bakar, and the Mosque of the
Prophet Salih.
TABARIVVAH (jIBERIAS).
The capital of the Jordan Province.
" Tabariyyah lies on the lake of the same name," writes Ya'kubi,
" and is surrounded by hills. From the lake runs out the Jordan.
At the city of Tiberias are hot springs, which bubble up and never
fail summer or winter. They carry the hot water into the baths
by conduits, and thus the people have no need of fuel for heating
their water." (Yb., 115.)
Istakhri's account is as follows : " The chief town of the
Urdunn (Jordan) Province is Tabariyyah. It stands on a fresh-
water lake 1 2 leagues long, by from 2 leagues to 3 leagues across.
There are hot springs which flow out near the city, rising about
2 leagues away ; but even when the water reaches the town
although from the length of the conduit it has somewhat cooled
it is still so hot that skins thrown into it have the hair removed,
and it is impossible to use the water (for bathing) until (cold
water) has been mixed with it. This water is what is generally
employed in the hot baths and the (mosque) tanks (for ablution).
At Tabariyyah they use (for drinking purposes) the water of the
lake." (Is., 58; I. H, 113.)
" Tabariyyah," writes Mukaddasi, " is the capital of the Jordan
Province, and a city of the Valley of Kin'an (Canaan). The
houses stand between the mountain and the lake. The town is
narrow, hot in summer, and unhealthy. It is nearly a league in
length, but has no breadth. Its market-place extends from one
city gate to the other, and its graveyard is on the hill-slope.
There are here eight natural hot baths, where no fuel need be
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOU'NS. 335
used, and numberless basins besides of boiling water. The
mosque is large and fine, and stands in the market-place. Its
floor is laid in pebbles, set on stone drums, placed close one to
another. Of the people of Tiberias it is said that for two months
they dance, and for two more they gorge ; that for two months
they beat about, and for two more they go naked ; that for two
months they play the reed, and for two more they wallow. The
explanation of this is that they dance from the number of fleas,
then gorge off the Nabak fruit : they beat about with fly-laps to
chase away the wasps from the meat and the fruits, then they go
naked from the heat ; they suck the sugar-canes, and then have to
wallow through their muddy streets. Beyond the lower end of
the Lake of Tiberias is a great bridge,* over which lies the road
from Damascus. The people drink the water of the lake. Around
its shores are villages and palm-trees, and on its surface are boats
which come and go. The water from the baths and the hot
springs flows into the lake, and strangers dislike the flavour of its
waters for drinking. The lake swarms, none the less, with fish,
and the water is light of digestion. The mountains, which are
steep, overhang the town." (Muk., 161 ; quoted at length by
Yak., iii. 510.)
Mukaddasi continues on another page : " Near Tiberias are
boiling springs, which supply most of the hot baths of that town.
A conduit goes to each bath from the springs, and the steam of
the water heats the whole building, whereby they have no need of
artificial firing. In an outer building they set cold water, which,
in certain proportion, has to be mixed with the hot by those who
wish to bathe ; and this same also serves in the (mosques) for the
ablution. Within this district are other hot springs, as at the place
called Al Hammah (the Thermal Waters). Those who suffer from
the scab, or ulcers, or sores, and other such-like diseases, come to
bathe here during three days, and then afterwards they dip in the
water of another spring, which is cold, whereupon if Allah
vouchsafe it to them they become cured. I have heard the
* Either the Jisr al Majanii', or the bridge, at present in ruins, close to the
southern end of the lake, called Jisr as Sidd.
336 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
people of Tiberias relate that all around these springs, down to
the time of Aristotle, there were bath-houses, each establishment
being for the cure of a specific disease, and those who were
afflicted thereby sojourned here and bathed for their cure. Aris-
totle, however, demanded of the king of that time that these bath-
houses should be pulled down, lest thereby men should become
exempt from recourse to physicians. That there are here several
different waters, with various medicinal properties, would appear
to be a certain fact ; for every sick person who comes here now
is obliged each one to immerse himself completely in the (mixed)
waters, in order to insure that he shall get to that which, in
particular, may heal his special disorder. Among the villages
near Maab, also, there is another hot-spring, called Hammah."
(Muk., 185.)
The springs here mentioned must be those of Gadara, or
Amatha, in the Yarmuk Valley, near the present town of
Umm Keis.
Tiberias was visited by Nasir-i-Khusrau in 1047. He writes in
his Diary :
" Leaving Irbil we came down a valley, at the further end of
which were visible the lake and the city of Tabariyyah upon the
shore of the same. The length of the lake (of Tiberias) I would
estimate at 6 leagues, and its breadth may be 3 leagues. The
\vater of the lake is sweet and of good flavour. The town lies on
the western shore. The waters from the hot springs near by, and
the drainage- water of the houses, all flow into the lake ; and yet
the population of the city, and of the places along the shore of
the lake, do, none the less, all of them drink of the w r aters thereof.
I heard that once upon a time a certain governor of the city gave
orders that they should prevent the refuse of the city and the
sewage from draining thus into the lake. But (after his orders
were carried out) the water of the lake itself became fetid, so as
to be no longer fit for drinking ; and on his ordering that the
sewers should again be allowed to open therein, the lake- water
became once more sweet as aforetimes. The city has a strong
wall that, beginning at the borders of the lake, goes all round the
town ; but on the water side there is no wall. There are number-
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 337
less buildings erected in the very water, for the bed of the lake in
this part is rock; and they have built pleasure houses that are
supported on columns of marble, rising up out of the water. The
lake is very full of fish.
" The Friday Mosque is in the midst of the town. At the gate
of the mosque is a spring, over which they have built a hot bath :
and the water of this spring is so hot that, until it has been mixed
with cold water, you cannot bear to have it poured over you.
They say this hot bath was built by Solomon, the son of David
peace be upon them both ! and I myself did visit it. There is,
too, on the western side of the town of Tiberias a mosque known
as the Jasmine Mosque (Masjidi- Ydsmin). It is a fine building,
and in the middle part rises a great platform (dukkan\ where they
have their Mihrabs (or prayer-niches). All round those they have
set jasmine-shrubs, from which the mosque derives its name. In
the colonnade, on the eastern side, is the tomb of Yusha' ibn Nun
(Joshua, the son of Nun); and underneath the great platform
aforesaid are shown the tombs of the seventy prophets peace be
upon them !- -whom the children of Israel slew. In the town of
Tiberias they make prayer-mats of reeds, which sell in the place
itself for five Maghribi Dinars (or over 2} a-piece. On the west of
the city rises a mountain, upon which has been built in hewn
stone a castle ; and there is here an inscription in Hebrew
characters, stating that, at the time it was cut, the Pleiades stood
at the head of the zodiacal sign of the Ram. The tomb of Abu
Hurairah (the Prophet's Companion) lies outside the city, towards
the south ; but no one can go and visit it, for the people who live
here are of the Shi'ah sect, and as soon as anyone comes to make
the visitation, the boys begin a tumult, and raise a disturbance
about him that ends in stone-throwing, wherefrom injuries are
received." (N. Kh., 16.)
The castle here mentioned is probably the remains of Herod's
Castle, now called Kasr Bint al Malik (the Palace of the King's
Daughter), lately visited and described by Herr Schumacher in
the P. E. F. Quarterly Statement for April, 1887.
Abu Hurairah, one of the Prophet's Companions, whose tomb
Nasir was unable to visit, died, in A.H. 57 (677), at 'Akik. His
22
338 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
body, say the historians, was taken into Al Madinah, and buried
in the well-known cemetery of Al Baki'. (Cf. Ibn Khallikan's
Biographical Dictionary, translated by De Slane, i. 570.) In con-
firmation of Nasir's account, that his tomb was in old times shown
at a village near Tiberias, is a stone of 'Ajlun marble, measuring
2 feet 7 inches by 2 feet, lately discovered in this neighbourhood
by Herr Schumacher. It bears on its face an Arabic inscription
to the following effect :
"In the name of Allah the Compassionate, the Merciful ! Say :
He is one God God the Everlasting! He begetteth not, and He
is not begotten, and there is none like unto Him* This is the Tomb
of Abu Hurairah, the Companion of the Apostle of Allah : upon
whom be the peace of Allah and His blessing"
In the place where this stone was discovered, Herr Schumacher
noted traces of an ancient mosque. (P. E. F. Quarterly State-
ment, April, 1887, p. 89.)
" Tabariyyah," according to Idrisi's work, written in 1154, "is
a great city in the Province of the Jordan, and the capital thereof.
It is a beautiful town, lying on the slope of the mountain ; and it
stretches out in the length, for its breadth is small. In length it
is near to a couple of miles. At the base of the town, on its
western part, is a lake of sweet water 12 miles long, and the like
in breadth ; and over it sail vessels that carry the crops of the
lands round the lake to the city. It has fortified walls. They
manufacture here the mats called As Samaniyyah; and marvellous
they are, and very little are they manufactured elsewhere in any
of the other towns of this land. In Tiberias are hot baths with
hot water that is not heated with fire. The water remains hot
summer and winter. Among them is the bath called Hammam
ad Damakir ; it is very large, and the \vater when it first gushes
from the ground is so hot that they scald kid skins and fowls
therein, and you may boil eggs in it. The water is salt. Then
there is the Hammam Lulu, which is smaller than the Hammam
ad Damakir. Its water is hot, but sweet ; and the warm water is
distributed among the houses in the neighbourhood, being used
for washing and other purposes. Of other baths is the Hammam
* This first paragraph forms the H2th chapter of the Kuran.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 339
;il Minjadah. In all Tiberias there is no Hammam that is heated
with fire except only the Small Bath (A! Hammam as Saghir), and
this was originally built by a certain one of the Muslim kings in
his private house for his own use, and for the use of his wives, and
his children, and his servants. When he died the bath was thrown
open and given to the people for the public to use, and in it alone
is the water heated with fire.
" To the south of Tiberias are great Hammams, such as 'Ain
Mauki'in, and 'Ain ash Sharaf (or 'Ain ash Sharab), and others,
wherein at all seasons flow out springs of hot water. Sick people
from all the neighbouring countries come to these, such as
those who suffer from lumbago, and paralysis, and rheumatism,
and those with ulcers and the scab ; and they remain in the water
during three days, and then by the permission of Allah they
become healed." (Id., 10.)
'Ali of Herat has the following notices of places of visitation
lying near Tiberias. The text will be found on folios 27, 28, and
30, of the Oxford MS., and they have been copied by Yakut into
his Dictionary :
" To the east of the lake is said to be the tomb of Sulaiman
(King Solomon) ibn Daiid ; but the truth is that his tomb is at
Bait Lahm, both he and his father being buried in the cave where
Jesus was born (at Bethlehem). On the east of the lake also is
the tomb of Lukman, the sage (.Ksop). At Tabariyyah is the
spring of water which is called after 'isa (Jesus), the son of Mary
peace be upon Him ! and the Church of the Tree (Kamsah as/i
ShajaraJi), about which there is a wondrous history concerning
'isa ibn Maryam peace be upon Him! and the dyers (or
artisans). It is mentioned in the Evahgil, and was the first
miracle that He did.
" On the spur of the Mountain of Tabariyyah is the tomb of
Abu Hurairah." (Copied in Yak., iii. 512.)
The story of Jesus and the artisans, or dyers for the MSS.
vary in the reading of the word is presumably some apocryphal
version of the marriage of Cana.
'Ali of Herat continues: "The Hammam (or hot baths) of
Tiberias are considered one of the wonders of the world. They
22 2
340 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
lie at the Gate of Tabariyyah, and beside the lake. Of the like
of this we have seen many in other parts of the world. But that
which is the real wonder of the world is the Hammam at a place
in the dependencies of Tabariyyah, and to the east of it at a
village called Al Husainiyyah, in the Wadi (of the Varmuk).
Here there are ancient structures said to have been built by
Solomon, the son of David, and one building was originally a
temple. The water flows out from the forepart of the building,
pouring forth from twelve openings, and each spring is especially
purposed to cure a special disease. The water is extremely hot,
but is perfectly limpid and sweet to drink." (Copied by Yakut,
iii. 510.)
" Tabariyyah," writes Yakut, " is a small town on the shore of
the lake of that name. It lies three days distant from Damascus,
and the like from Jerusalem, and two days from 'Akkah, being in
the Jordan Province and in the Ghaur. The town in shape is
long and narrow, till it attains the slope of a small mountain near
by, on which are other buildings. There are hot salt springs here,
over which they have built Hammams, and they use no fuel.
Tabariyyah is called after Tabara (Tiberias), one of the Greek
kings. He built the baths here, for he saw no fuel was needed,
hot water gushing out by night and day. Tabariyyah was first
conquered by (the Arab commander) Shurahbil in the year 13
(634) by capitulation ; one half of the houses and churches were
to belong to the Muslims, the other half to the Christians,
Between Tabariyyah and Baisan is another hot bath called the
Hammah of Solomon, the son of David. They say it cures all
kinds of diseases.
"In the middle of the lake is a sculptured stone, with upper
rows of stones set thereon. It may be seen from afar off. It is
said by the people of the neighbourhood to be the tomb of
David." (Yak., iii. 509.)
"Tabariyyah," writes Dimashki, "in the Safad District, was
originally the capital of the Jordan Jund. It is a city that is
built along the shore of the lake. The latter is 12 miles long,
and 6 miles across. The mountains surround it on all sides.
Out of the lake runs the Shari'ah (River Jordan), which flows
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 341
down to the Lake of Zughar (the Dead Sea). On the shore of
the Lake of Tabariyyah are some springs of extremely hot water,
called Al Hammamat (the Hot Baths). The water of these
springs is salt and sulphurous, and is very useful in cases of swollen
limbs, dry mange, or for excess of phlegm, and extreme corpu-
lence. They say that the tomb of Solomon, the son of David, is
in this lake." (Dim., 211.)
Abu-1 Fida gives much of the above in epitome, but adds no
new facts. In his day the city was in ruins, never having re-
covered the siege by Salad in, who took it from the Crusaders in
1187.
Tabariyyah was visited in 1355 by Ibn Batutah. He speaks of
it as a large and ancient town, now in ruins : " There are," he
says, "baths here, with bath-houses for both men and women,
and the waters are very hot. The Lake of Tabariyyah is 6 leagues
long, and 3 leagues broad. At Tabariyyah is the Mosque of the
Prophets. Here also is the tomb of Shu'aib (Jethro), and of his
daughter, the wife of Moses. The tombs of Solomon, Yahudfi
(Judah), and RClbil (Reuben), are also shown here." (I. B.,
i. 132.)
CHAPTER IX.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS (continued).
Tyre (Sur). Sidon (Saida). Tripoli (Tarabulus, or Atrabulus) : The Old
and the New Town The Castles of the Assassins. Hims (Emessa) :
The Talisman against Scorpions. Hamah (Hamath) : The Ancient
Castle. Aleppo (H&\ak>} : Ibn Butlan's Description The Castle. Antioch
(Antakiyyah) : Christian Churches and Convents Description by Ibn
Ikitlan The Great Storm of the Year 1050 A. D. Tradition of Habib an
Najar. Tarsus : The Frontier Fortress, and the Garrison.
(TYRE).*
" A CITY of the Jordan Province," writes Ya'kubi. " It is the chief
town of the coast districts, and contains the Arsenal (Dar as
SancCah). From here sail the Sultan's ships on the expeditions
against the Greeks. It is a beautiful place, and fortified. The
population is of mixed nationality." (Yb., 115.)
"Sur in the Jordan Province is one of the most strongly
fortified of the sea-coast towns. It is populous, and its lands
are fertile. They say it is the most ancient of the coast towns,
and that most of the Greek philosophers were from it." (Is., 59 ;
I. H, 114.)
Mukaddasi in 985, writes : " Tyre is a fortified town on the sea,
or rather in the sea, for you enter the town through one gate only,
over a bridge, and the sea lies all round it. The city consists of
two quarters ; the first being built on the terra firma ; while the
second, (the harbour) beyond this, is an area enclosed by triple
* Tyre, in Hebrew Tsor, becomes regularly Sur in Arabic ; while the
Arabic word Tur is the name given to Sinai, Tabor, and other conspicuous
mountains or hills. See p. 72.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 343
walls with no earth appearing, for the walls rise out of the sea.
Into this harbour the ships come every night, and then a chain is
drawn across, whereby the Greeks are prevented from molesting
them. Water is brought into the town by means of a vaulted
aqueduct. Tyre is a beautiful and pleasant city. Many artificers
dwell here, and ply their special trades. Between Tyre and Acre
lies a bay of the sea, and thus the proverb says * Acre is opposite
Tyre ; but getting to it you will tire,' that is, travelling all along
the sea-shore." (Muk., 163.)
Tyre was visited by Nasir-i-Khusrau in 1047. He writes in his
Diary :
" Five leagues from Sidon we came to Tyre, a town that rises
on the shore of the sea. They have built the city on a rock
(which is in the sea), after such a manner, that the town-wall, for
one hundred yards only, is upon the dry land, and the remainder
rises up from out the very water. The walls are built of hewn
stone, their joints being set in bitumen in order to keep the water
out. I estimated the area of the town to be a thousand (cubits;*
square, and its caravanserais are built of five or six stories, set one
above the other. There are numerous fountains of water ; the
bazaars are very clean, also great is the quantity of wealth exposed.
This city of Tyre is, in fact, renowned for wealth and power
among all the maritime cities of Syria. The population for the
most part are of the Shi'ah sect, but the Kadi (or judge) of the
place is a Sunni. He is known as the son of Abu 'Akil, and is a
good man, also very wealthy. They have erected a Mash-had (a
shrine, or place of martyrdom) at the city gate, where one may
see great quantities of carpets and hangings, and lamps and
lanterns of gold and silver. The town itself stands on an eminence.
Water is brought thereto from the mountain ; and leading up to
the town-gate they have built arches (for the aqueduct), along
which the water comes into the city. In these mountains is the
valley (of the Battaf), over against this city, and running eastward,
through which, after eighteen leagues, you come to the City of
Damascus." (N. Kh., u.)
* The word arsh is, I suppose, to be understood. None of the MSS. give
the measure employed.
344 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
In 1124 the Crusaders, under Baldwin II., besieged and took
Tyre, and the Franks afterwards held the city till 1291, when it
was retaken by the Muslims.
"Sur,"-says Idrisi, in 1154, "is a fine city upon the sea-shore,
where there is a harbour for vessels to moor in, and to sail from.
It is a fortified place, and of ancient date. The sea surrounds it
on three sides, and there is a large suburb. They make here
long-necked vases of glass and pottery. Also a sort of white
clothes-stuff which is exported thence to all parts, being extremely
fine, and well woven beyond compare. The price also is very
high ; and in butYew of the neighbouring countries do they make
as good a stuff." (Id., n.)
Tyre was visited by Ibn Jubair in 1 185. He writes of it in his
Diary in the following terms :
"Tyre is a town that is like a fortress, and it belongs to the
Franks. Its streets and roads are cleaner than those of 'Akka.
Many Moslems live here, and they are unmolested by the Infidels.
The town is smaller than 'Akka. The fortress is wonderfully built
and impregnable. It has two gates only : one on the land side, one
on the sea. The sea surrounds it on all sides save one. On the
land side there are at the entrance of the city three gates, or
may be four (one behind the other), each guarded by a high outer
wall commanding the gate. The sea gate is entered between two
high towers, and then you come into the port, than which there is
none more wonderful among all the maritime cities. Surround-
ing it on three sides lie the city walls, and on the fourth side it is
closed in by a wall with an archway built cf mortared masonry,
and the ships come in under this archway, and anchor inside.
Between the two towers, before mentioned, they stretch a mighty
chain which prevents aught going in or out, and the ships can
only pass when it is lowered. At this gate are guards who keep
watch and ward on all who enter and depart. This port of Tyre
is most famous and beautiful. 'Akka has a port like it, but which
does not afford anchorage to such large ships : and the port of
Tyre is far the larger." (I. J., 308.)
The same author continues : " At the Land Gate of Sur is a
spring of bubbling water, to which you descend by steps. Wells
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 34$
and cisterns are numerous within the city, and there is hardly a
house without one." (I. J., 314.)
"Tyre," says Yakut, in 1225, ".is a celebrated city, and a
frontier fortress of the Muslims. The city is surrounded on three
sides by the sea, and there is land only on the fourth side where
the roadway is defended by a fortified gate. It stands out in the
sea, as the palm of the hand does from the wrist. The Muslims
first took the city in the days of 'Omar, and it remained in their
hands in perfect prosperity till the year 518 (1124), when the
Franks came against the city and beleaguered and blockaded it,
till it surrendered. The ruler of Egypt had tried to raise the
siege, but the winds were contrary, and perforce he had to sail
back to Egypt. Then they capitulated, and the Muslims all left
the city, and none remained, except beggars, who could not move.
The Franks have fortified Tyre and garrisoned it and rebuilt the
town, and it remains in their hands even to the present day
(1225). Tyre is counted as of the Jordan Province/' (Yak.,
iii. 433; Mar., ii. 171.)
Abu-1 Fida adds nothing to the descriptions just given, except
to note that " the city was reconquered by the Muslims in 690
(1291), at the same time as Acre and other coast towns, and was
then laid in ruins, as it remains down to the present day " (that
is, 1321). (A. F., 243.)
"Saladin," writes Dimashki, "did not gain possession of Tyre,
for in his days it remained in the hands of the Christians, and
was only retaken by Salah ad Din Khalil, and it was he who laid
it in ruins. In the space of forty-seven days he retook from the
Christians the fortresses of Athlith, Haifa, Iskandanlnah, Tyre,
Sidon, Bairut, Jubail, Anafah, Al Bathrun, and Sarfand.'' (Dim.,
213-)
Tyre was visited by Ibn Batutah in 1355, who found it a
mass of ruins. He writes : " It was formerly proverbial for its
strength, being washed on three sides by the sea. Of the ancient
walls and port traces remain, and of old there was a chain across
the mouth of the port.'' (I. B., i. 130.)
346 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
SAIDA (SIDON).
"A city," writes Ya'kubi in 891, "at the foot of the Lebanon
mountains. The town is entirely peopled by Persians, who were
brought here by the Khalif Mu'awiyah." (Yb., 114.)
"Saida," writes Mukaddasi, "is a fortified city on the sea."
(Muk., 160.)
Sidon was visited by the Persian traveller Nasir-i-Khusrau, in
1047. He writes in his Diary :
" From Bairut we came on to the city of Saida, likewise on the
seashore. They cultivate here much sugar-cane. The city has a
well-built wall of stone, and four gates. There is a fine Friday
Mosque, very agreeably situated, the whole interior of which is
spread with matting in coloured designs. The bazaars are so
splendidly adorned that when I first saw them I imagined the
city to be decorated for the arrival of the Sultan, or in honour of
some good news. When I inquired, however, they said it was
customary for their city to be thus always beautifully adorned.
The gardens and orchards of the town are such that one might
say each was a pleasance laid out at the fancy of some king.
Kiosks are set therein, and the greater number of the trees are of
those kinds that bear edible fruits." (N. Kh., n.)
"The town of Saida," reports Idrisi, "lies on the coast of the
salt sea, and is surrounded by a wall of stone, that owes its origin
to a certain woman of pagan times. Saida is a large city, where
the markets are thronged and provisions are cheap. It is sur-
rounded by gardens and trees, water is in plenty, and it has broad
outlying districts. The city owns four districts (Iklim), which
lie contiguous to the Lebanon Mountains. The first is the Iklim
of Jazin, through which runs the Wadi al Hirr, which is noted for
its fertility and the abundance of its fruits. The second is the
Iklim as Surbah, which is a fine district. The third is the Iklim
of Kafar Kila. The fourth is the Iklim ar Kami, which is the
name of a river that flows through the hills. These four districts
contain more than 6co domains. The people of Saida drink from
water that is brought down from the mountains by an aqueduct.
In the town is a celebrated spring, for during the spring months
PRO VI NCI A L CAPITALS A ND CHI /; /' 7 'O 1 1 r N S. 347
there grow certain small fish of about the length of a finger, and
some of them are male and some of them are female, having
organs to distinguish between the two. These fish are caught at
the breeding time and dried. When they are to be used, you
take one and scrape it and eat it dry, but should drink water after-
wards, and it acts on a man as a strong aphrodisiac, so that he
ran enjoy women as much as he will without suffering from
exhaustion or debility. These fish are small and of the form of
the Gecko lizard. They have fore and hind legs, but small, and
partly hidden. I myself have seen them many times." (Id., 15.)
"Saida," says Yakut, "is a city on the coast belonging to the
Damascus Province. It lies 6 leagues east of Tyre. Saida is
called after Saidun, son of Sanaka, son of Kan'an (Canaan), son
of Nfih (Noah). It was during some years in the hands of the
Franks. There are quantities of vegetables grown all round the
town, and the Narcissus flowers everywhere. In the year 504 ( 1 1 1 o)
Ma'dun (Baldwin?), who was the Lord of Jerusalem, went against
Saida with a large army and conquered it, giving the people
quarter, but harrassing them. It remained in the hands of the
Christians till Saladin took it in the year 583 (1187). (Yak., iii.
439; Mar., ii. 174.)
Abu-1 Fida writes : " Saida, on the Damascus coast, stands on
the seaside. It is a small town, but fortified. The road from
Saida to Damascus is as follows : From Saida to Mashghara is
24 miles. Mashghara is one of the pleasantest of the towns of
these parts. It has splendid trees and streams, and stands on a
Wadi. From Mashghara to Kamid (al Lauz), which in old times
was the chief town of the district, is 6 miles. From Kamid to
the domain called 'Ain al Jarr is 18 miles; and from 'Ain al
Jarr to Damascus is also 18 miles. Total from Saida to Damascus
66 miles." (A. F., 249.)
Sidon was visited by Ibn Batutah in 1355. He speaks of it
as a town full of fruit-trees, the exports being figs, raisins and
olive oil which are carried to Egypt. (I. B., i. 132.)
348 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
TARABULUS, OR ATRABULUS (TRIPOLI).
"A town," writes Ya'kubi in 891, "inhabited by Persians
brought hither by the Khalif Mu'awiyah. The place has a fine
harbour, capable of containing a thousand ships." (Yb., 114.)
Writing in the year 869, Biladhuri says : " When 'Othman
became Khalif, and Mu'awiyah was first made Governor of Syria,
he despatched Sufyan ibn Mujib al Azdi against Atrabulus, which
was at that time a city containing Three Towns united into one.
Sufyan built a fort in a meadow a few miles distant, calling it
Hisn Sufyan, thereby cutting off aid to the city from all sides,
and the people could get no succour either by sea or by land.
Then the people sent to the King of Rum (Constantinople),
and he despatched ships, and they escaped to them by night ;
and when Sufyan entered the city he found the place empty.
Mu'awiyah colonized the place with Jews, and they are those who
live at the harbour to this day. The Khalif 'Abd al Malik rebuilt
and refortified Tarabulus." (Bil., 167.)
According to Istakhri : " Tarabulus, or Atrabulus, in the
Damascus Province, is a city of great plenty, with excellent crops
and fruits, for the lands are wonderfully fertile. Living is cheap.
It is the port of Damascus, and lies on its coast. The Damas-
cenes are in garrison here, as also other men from other parts of
the province, and they set out from here on their military expedi-
tions. The people of Tripoli are not so rough and frivolous as
are the Damascenes ; they are given to good works, and will
listen to the exhortation of the preacher. The lands round are
fertile, growing palms and sugar-canes." (Is., 61 ; I. H., 116.)
" Tarabulus," says Mukaddasi, " is a fortified city on the sea.
It is a finer town than either Saida or Bairut." (Muk., 160.)
Tripoli was visited by Nasir-i-Khusrau in 1047. He writes in
his Diary :
" From Aleppo to Tarabulus is 40 leagues. The whole neigh-
bourhood of the town is occupied by fields, and gardens, and
trees. The sugar-cane grows here luxuriously, as likewise orange
and citron trees, also the banana, the lemon, and the date. They
were, at the time of our arrival, extracting the juice of the sugar-
1'ROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 349
cane. The town of Tripoli is so situate that three sides thereof
are on the sea, and when the waves beat, sea-water is thrown up
on to the very city walls. The fourth side, which is towards the
land, is protected by a mighty ditch, lying eastward of the wall,
across which opens an iron gate, solidly built. The walls are all
of hewn stone, and the battlements and embrasures are after the
like work. Along the battlements are placed balistae (arradah),
for their fear is of the Greeks, who are wont to attempt the place
in their ships. The city measures 1,000 cubits long, by the like
across. Its hostelries are four and five stories high, and there are
even some that are of six. The private houses and bazaars are
well built, and so clean that one might take each to be a palace
for its splendour. Every kind of meat, and fruit, and eatable
that ever I saw in all the land of Persia is to be had here, and a
hundred degrees better in quality. In the midst of the town is
the great Friday Mosque, well kept, and finely adorned, and
solidly constructed. In the mosque court is a large dome, built
over a marble tank, in the middle of which is set a brazen
fountain. In the bazaar, too, they have made a watering-place,
where, at five spouts, is abundant water for the people to take
from ; and the overflow, going along the ground, runs into the
sea. They say there are twenty thousand men in this city, and
the place possesses many territories .and villages. They make
here very good paper, like that of Samarkand, only of better
quality. The city of Tripoli belongs to the (Fatimite) Sultan of
Egypt. The origin, as I was told, of this is that when, a certain
time ago, an army of the infidels from Byzantium had come
against the city, the Muslims from Egypt came and did fight the
infidels, and put them to flight. The Sultan of Egypt has
remitted his right to the land-tax (kharaj] in the city. There is
always a body of the Sultan's troops in garrison here, with a
commander set over them, to keep the city safe from the enemy.
The city, too, is a place of customs, where all ships that come
from the coasts of the Greeks, and the Franks, and from
Andalusia, and the Western lands (called Maghrib}, have to pay
a tithe to the Sultan, which sums are employed for providing the
rations of the garrison. The Sultan also has ships of his own
350 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
here, which sail to Byzantium, and Sicily, and the West, to carry
merchandise. The people of Tripoli are all of the Shi'ah sect.
The Shi'ahs in all countries have built for themselves fine
mosques. There are in this place houses like Ribats (which are
caravanserais, or watch-stations), only that no one dwells therein
on guard, and they call them Mash-hads (shrines, or places of
martyrdom). There are no houses outside the city of Tripoli,
except two or three of these Mash-hads." (N. Kh., 6.)
"Atrabulus of Syria," according to the report of Idrisi, "is a
great city, defended by a stone wall, and impregnable. It has
villages, and territories, and fine domains ; and many trees such
as olives, vines, sugar-cane, and fruit-trees of all kinds, and of all
manner of crops a variety beyond count. Coming and going
there is perpetual. The sea embraces the town on three sides,
and it is one of the great fortresses of Syria. All sorts of wares
are brought thither, and of stuffs and merchandise great quantities.
To Atrabulus belong a number of forts and castles which are
garrisoned from this place, and are in the jurisdiction, thereof.
Of these are 'Anaf al Hajar, Hisn al Kalamun, Hisn Abu-1 'Adas,
and Artusiyyah (Orthosia). Of chief domains there are four
belonging to Tripoli that are very celebrated. These are the well-
known villages of Ash Shafikah, Az Zaituniyyah, Ar Ra'ibiyyah,
with Al Hadath and Amyun.* Belonging to the town are lands
with olive-trees and gardens growing all sorts of fruits and crops
in plenty. Lying 4 miles to the south of the town is a fort built
by Ibn Sinjil (Count Raymond of St. Giles, in 1104), the Frank,
from which he came and conquered Tripoli. This is an impreg-
nable fortress on a height between two Wadis.
" Opposite the city of Tripoli are four islands in a row. The
first of them, and the nearest to the land, is the Narcissus Isle
(An Narjis] ; it is very small, and is unoccupied. Then comes
the Isle of the Column (Al 'Aumd\ then Monk's Isle (Ar Rahib\
and then the Isle of Ardhakun (or Udhakun)." (Id., 17.)
On the margin of one of the MSS. of Idrisi is the following :
" The inhabitants of Tripoli have already removed towards the
mountain, and have built another city of the same name at a
* The reading of these names is very doubtful.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 351
place which lies 4 miles from the sea. All that remains of the
ancient city is the mosque, which is still used. It is called Jami'
al 'Umari. I myself have stayed there some days when we were
stationed for defence on the coast. The people fled from the old
town on account of their fear of the enemy, who used to make
incursions. The new town has no wall, except a short piece
towards the sea. It was built by the Amir Manjak (the Governor of
Tripoli) in the year 768(1 366),* during the reign of Sultan Sha'aban."
Yakut adds nothing to the foregoing. (Yak., i. 307 ; iii. 523;
Mar., i. 74 ; ii. 198.)
Tripoli, which was taken by the Crusaders in 1104, was retaken
by the Muslims under Sultan Kala'un in 1289.
" Tarabulus," says Dimashki, " is the capital of the Province
of that name. After Sultan Kala'un, at the head of the Muslim
army, had retaken Tarabulus, a new city was built on a spur of
the Lebanon Mountains about 5 miles distant from the old town
of Tarabulus, which had been laid in ruins. The new town lies
on the bank of a stream that falls into the sea, and stands partly
on the mountain and partly in the plain, being both on the sea
and near the open country. Water flows into the city from all
sides, and there is an aqueduct on arches which brings the water
from a valley in the mountains. This aqueduct carries the water
at a height of near 70 ells, and is about 200 ells long. The river
aforesaid flows underneath it, watering the lands, and thence flowing
into the sea. There is hardly a house in the town that has not
trees (in its court) in numbers, for the waters flow everywhere,
coming down from the Lebanon Mountains. In the gardens of
Tarabulus are all kinds of fruits, such as you find nowhere else.
The sugar-cane, and the sycamore, and sage-plants in great
quantities, also the colocassia (Kalkas). You get here sea-fish
and birds of all varieties, such as you can get in no other single
place." (Dim., 207.)
The same author continues : " Belonging to the Tarabulus
District are the following places : Al Bathrun (Botrys), a place
conquered by Al Malik al Mansur (Kala'un). It has extensive
lands. Anafah, a well-built town lying on the coast, and Antartus.
* See G. Weil, Geschichte der Chalifen, iv. 522.
352 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Hisn 'Arka and Hisn Halba, both with broad lands, and both
the chief towns of their respective districts. Jun and Rajaliyah,
two fortresses dismantled in our own day. Also the town of
Marakiyyah on the coast, an ancient city with extensive lands.
Jumah 'Akkar, Jumah Bashariyyah, and Al Kurah.
" Of the Tarabulus Districts also are : Al Bukai'ah, where there
is a fortress, and An Na'im. Also the Nusairiyyah Mountains,
among which lie about twenty districts, extending from Al
Ladhikiyyah and Sahyun towards Al Bathrun.
" The castles of the Assassins (Kilo? ad D&wiyah) belong to the
districts of Tarabulus. These have been lately built by Rashid
ad Din Muhammad, the disciple of 'Ala ad Din 'Ali, who holds
the fort of Al Alamaut in Persia near Kaswin. He is the Chief of
the Assassins, whose sect is celebrated for its impiety. They are
called Ismailians also. Among their castles are Hisn al Khawabi ;
Hisn al Kahf, where there is a cavern in which Rashid ad Din, it
is said, once took refuge, and now lies buried ; or, as others say, has
only disappeared, and will appear again according to the belief of
his people. Hisn al Kadmus, where during the months of
Tammuz and Ab numbers of serpents appear in a certain hot
bath. Hisn al 'Ullaikah, Hisn al Mainakah, Hisn ar Rusafah lie
on the spurs of the Taraz (Mountains) towards Damascus. Also
Hisn Abi Kubais* and Thughr Masyaf. This last is the mother
fortress of them all. The Assassins chosen are sent out thence to
all countries and lands to slay kings and great men." (Dim., 208.)
Abu-1 Fida adds nothing to the above in his description of
Tripoli ; he gives the distance thence to Ba'albakk as 54 miles.,
to Damascus as 90 miles, and to Antartus (Tortosa) as 30 miles.
(A. F, 253.)
The new town of Tripoli was visited by Ibn Batutah in 1355.
He describes it as : " Traversed by water-channels and full of
gardens. The houses are newly built. The sea lies 2 leagues
distant, and the ruins of the old town are seen on the sea-shore.
It was taken by the Franks, but Al Malik ath Thahir retook it
from them, and then laid the place in ruins and built the present
town. There are fine baths here." (I. B., i. 137.)
* Bokebeis, of the Crusading Chronicles.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 353
HIMS (EMESSA).
" Hims,'' writes Ya'kubi, in 8gi, "is one of the largest cities in
Syria. It is situated on a broad river, the water of which the
inhabitants drink. The city has many districts round it, among
which is that called Al Bamah." (Yb., 1 1 1.)
" Hims," writes Mas'udi, " is noted for the personal beauty of its
inhabitants." (Mas ., i. 125.) "The Empress Helena built here a
church on four piers (arkiin), which is one of the wonders of the
world." (Mas., ii. 312.)
" The streets of Hims were of old paved with flag-stones, and
the same may be noted at the present day." (Bil., 134 ; also
I. R, no.)
" Of the wonders of Hims," says Ibn al Fakih, " is an image which
stands over the gate of the Jami' Mosque, facing the church.
This is of white stone, and the upper part of the image is in the
form of a man, the lower being in the form of a scorpion. If a
scorpion stings a man, let him take clay and press it on the
image, and then dissolve the clay in water and drink it. It will
still the pain, and immediately he will recover. They say this image
is a talisman specially made against scorpions." (I. F., no.)
" Hims," writes Istakhri, " is the capital of the province of the
same name. The city lies in a fertile plain ; it enjoys an excellent
climate, and its soil is one of the best in Syria. Its people are
extremely handsome. There are neither scorpions nor snakes in
Hims, and should one enter the place, it dies. Water, trees, and
arable fields are seen everywhere, and most of the village lands are
watered by the rains (not artificially irrigated). There is here a
church, half of which is used as a Mosque, while the other half
belongs to the Christians, and they have here their chapel and altar.
This church of theirs is one of the largest in Syria. The Greeks
have invaded this country during our own days (tenth century),
and ruined many of its lands and villages. The desolation is
gaining everywhere, since these incursions of the Infidels began,
and though the people are seeking to return to their old homes,
the Badawin Arabs eat up their crops, and plunder their land, time
after time. Nearly all the streets and markets of Hims are
23
354 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
flagged or paved with stones." (Is., 61 ; I. H, 117; copied in
part by A. F., 261.)
Mukaddasi, writing in 985, says of Emessa :
"There is no larger city than this in all Syria. There is a
citadel high above the town, which you perceive from afar off.
Most of the drinking-water is obtained from the rainfall, but there
is also a river. When the Muslims conquered this place they
seized the church, and turned the half of it into a Mosque. In the
market-place near by is a cupola, on the top of which is seen the
figure of a man in brass, standing upon a fish, and the same is
turned by the four winds. About this figure they relate many
stories, but these are unworthy of credence. This town has
suffered great misfortunes, and is indeed threatened with ruin,
Its men are witless. The other towns of these parts are also
falling to decay, though prices are moderate, and such of them as
are on the coast are well provided with ramparts." (Muk., 156.)
" There is at Hims a talisman it is the wind-vane, and it
serves against scorpions. For whosoever takes clay and presses it
thereon, by Allah's permission, will obtain a cure for their sting ;
and the cure is effected by the impact of the figure on the vane,
not by the clay alone." (Muk., 186.)
In 1099 Hims was captured by the Crusaders. Idrisi reports
in '1154:
" Hims, the capital of the Province of the same name, is a fine
town standing in a plain. It is populous, and much frequented
by travellers who come there for its products and rarities of all
kinds. Its markets are always open. The ways of the people are
pleasant ; living with them is easy, and their manners are agree-
able. The women are beautiful, and are celebrated for their fine
skins. The drinking water is brought to the city by an aqueduct
from a village near Jusiyyah, about a day's march from the city in
the direction of Damascus. The river Urunt (Orontes), called
also Al Maklub, flows by the gate (of Hims), and there are
gardens one after another along it, belonging to the city, with
trees and many water channels. They bring the fruit from these
gardens into the town. Since the beginning of Islam this has
been of all cities that which has produced most grapes ; but now
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 355
these gardens are for the most part laid waste. The soil is
excellent for the tilling and raising of crops ; and the climate is
more equable than that of any other town of Syria. There is
here (in Hims) a talisman which prevents the entrance of any
serpent or scorpion, and should one enter through the gate of the
city it immediately dies. For on the summit of a high dome
which is in the middle of the city, is an idol of brass in the figure
of a man, riding, and it turns with every wind that blows. In the
wall of the Dome is a stone on which is the figure of a scorpion,
and when a man is stung or bitten, he lays on this stone some
clay, and then puts the clay on the bite, and immediately he
becomes healed. All the streets and lanes of the city are paved
with blocks of hard stone. The agriculture of the province is
extremely productive, and the cultivated ground needs but very
little rain or irrigation. There is a large Mosque here, it is one
of the largest of all the cities of Syria." (Id., 18.)
Hims was visited in 1185 by the traveller Ibn Jubair who notes
in his diary that he stopped in the Khan as Sabil. He continues :
" It is a fine city standing in a plain, but wanting in water
and trees, shade and fruit ; and abounding in dust. Water is
brought to it by a canal from the river 'Asi (the Orontes), which
is about a mile distant. Along the river are gardens. The
people of Hims are noted for their courage and perseverance in
war. Those of Halab rank next to them in this quality. The
air of Hims is moist, and the breeze pleasant. On the south of
the town is a strong castle. On the east of the town is a cemetery
in which is the tomb of (the Arab General) Khalid ibn Al Walid,
and that of his son, 'Abd ar Rahman ; also the tomb of 'Ubaid
Allah, the son of the Khalif 'Omar. The walls of Hims are very
ancient and strong, being built of well laid blocks of black stone.
The city gates are of iron, of great height, and above each of them
is a high tower. There are many fine markets here. Not far
distant is Hisn al Akrad (the Castle of the Kurds),* which is a
strong place, but belonging to the enemy. There is no Maristan
(or hospital) in Hims, and only one Madrasah (or college).'
<! J-, 259.)
* See Part II.
232
356 ' PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Yakut (in 1225) speaks of Hims as "a large and celebrated
town. It is walled, and on the south is a strongly fortified castle
standing on a high hill. Hims lies half way between Damascus
and Haldb. The tombs of Khalid ibn Al Walid and of other Com-
panions of the Prophet are here. To the west of the road from
Hamah, near Hims, is the Urunt (Orontes river). Hims was
built by the ancient Greeks, and the Olives of Palestine were
of their rearing.* Hims was conquered by Khalid shortly after
Abu 'Ubaidah ibn Al Jarrah had taken Damascus. It capitulated
and was ransomed for 71,000 Dinars (.35,500; Ibn al Fakih,
p. no, gives the figure at 170,000 Dinars, or 85,000). Half
the Church of Yuhanna (St. John) was turned into a mosque.
Of the wonders of Hims is a figure over the gate of its Mosque
beside the church. On a white stone above is the figure of a
man, and below the figure of a scorpion. Anyone who takes
clay of the ground near and presses it on this figure, obtains a
sure antidote against scorpion stings, for if he drink some water
in which this clay is mixed he will be immediately cured of the
sting. At Hims is the Mash-had (Oratory of the Khalif) 'Ali ibn
Abu Talib, and there is a column on which is seen the mark of his
fingers, and certain persons have seen him here in sleep. There
is also here the house of Khalid ibn al Walid, and his tomb
therein, although of a truth he died and was buried at Al
Madinah. Near his tomb is that of Tyad ibn Ghanam. Some,
however, say Khalid died at a village about a mile from Hims.
Others say the so-called tomb of Khalid is that of Khalid ibn
Yazid ibn Mu'awiyah who built the Kasr (or Palace) at Hims, the
remains of w r hich are still to be seen on the west of the high-road."
(Yak., ii. 334~33 6 ; Mar., i. 320.)
" Hims," says Dimashki, " is the capital of the province of
that name, and is an ancient city ; of old it was called Suriya.
Its climate is most salubrious. No scorpions can live here, for
there is a talisman against them. This consists in a Dome, built
without any door. You take a certain clay from one of the. hills
of Hims, and rub it on the walls of this Dome, and then leave it
till it dries. This clay is exported to all countries. And when a
* The fact is also stated. by Ibn al Fakih, in 903 (I. F., no).
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 357
piece of it is thrown on a scorpion, it kills him. Under all the
houses of Hiins are one or two caverns, where there are springs of
drinking water. It is thus a city over a city. Its people are
remarkable for their small wit." (Dim., 202.)
" Hims," writes Ahu-1 Fida, " has gardens that are watered by
the Nahr al 'Asi (Orontes). Muhallabi speaks of Hims as the
capital of the Jund (province), and as being one of the healthiest
places in Syria. About a mile outside Hims runs the Nahr al
Maklub (the Orontes). They have beautiful gardens and vine-
yards. It is said that when clothes are washed in the Hims water
no snake or scorpion will harm the wearer until they have been
washed in other water again. The people of Hims are cele-
brated for the beauty of their skin." (A. F., 261.)
Hims was visited by Ibn Batutah in 1355. He speaks of the
fine trees and good markets here, noting that outside the town he
saw the tomb of Khalid, surnamed the Sword of God. " There
is a beautiful Jami' Mosque with a tank in its midst. The people
are Arab in race, excellent and noble." (I. 11, i. 141.)
HAMAH (HAMATH, EPIPHANIA).
"An ancient city on a river called Al Urunt (the Orontes)."
(Yb, no.)
" Hamah in the Hims Province," write Istakhri and Ibn Haukal,
"is a small town, but very pleasant to live in, having plenty of
water, and trees, and fields, and fruits." (Is., 61 ; I. H., 116.)
Nasir-i-Khusrau, in 1047, writes in his Diary :
" The city of Hama is well populated ; it stands on the bank of
the river 'Asi (Orontes). This stream is called the 'Asi (meaning
' the Rebel '), for the reason that it flows towards the Greek terri-
tory ; that is to say, it is a Rebel to go from the lands of Islam to
the lands of the Infidel. They have set up numerous water-
wheels on its banks.'' (N. Kh., 5.)
The traveller Ibn Jubair spent some days in Hamah during the
year 1185, and has given a long and rather verbose description
of the town in his Diary. Of this the following is a somewhat
condensed translation :
" Hamah is a very celebrated, ancient, populous and fruitful
city. To the east thereof a great river (the Orontes) runs broadly
358 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
along its bed, and on it are water-wheels (dulab) in great numbers
for irrigating the fields. On the river bank, in the suburb, are
well fitted latrines, with a number of cells through which
water flows coming from the water-wheel. On the other bank of
the river, near the lower town is a small Jami' Mosque, the
eastern wall of which is pierced (with windows), and above are
arcades through which you get a magnificent view. Opposite the
passage of the river, and in the heart of the town is the Castle-
hill. In the Castle they have their water from the river by a
channel which comes up there, so that there is no fear ever of
thirst. The situation of the city is as though it lay above a low
valley with broad extended lands, from which you go up on both
sides as from a deep ditch to the city itself, which is perched on
the slope of the hillside. Both the upper and lower town are
small. But the city walls are high and go right round, enclosing
the upper shoulder of the hill. The lower city is surrounded by
walls on its three sides, the fourth being defended by the river.
Over the river is a great bridge built of solid blocks of stone.
This goes from the lower town to the suburb. The suburb is
large, with many Khans, and there are the shops of all manner of
artificers and merchants, where travellers may find all they require,
and so do not need to enter the town. The markets of the
upper town are more numerous and richer than those of the
lower, and they are places of gathering for all manner of mer-
chants and artificers. The upper town has a Jami' Mosque,
larger than the Jami' of the lower town, also three Madrasahs
(colleges). There is a Maristan (or hospital) on the river .bank,
opposite the Jami' as Saghir (the Small Mosque). Outside the
city are gardens with trees and places of pleasant resort, on either
side the river bank. The river is called Al 'Asi, 'the Rebel,'
because apparently it runs from below upwards, its course being
from south to north. To the south of Hamah it passes Hims,
and in this southerly direction lies the cemetery of Hamah. On
leaving Hamah (on the way to Hims), after half a stage, we
crossed the river Al 'Asi (Orontes) by a great bridge of stone
arches, across which lies the town of Rastan." (I. J., 257, 258.)
Yakut, and the author of the epitome called the Marasid,
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 359
describe Hamah in the thirteenth century as a large town of
the Hims Province, surrounded by a wall, very strongly built.
" Outside this wall is a most extensive suburb, in which are great
markets, and a Mosque that stands above the river Al 'Asi. This
suburb, too, has a wall round it, and it extends along the bank of
the river Al 'Asi, where are Na'urahs (water-wheels), which water
the gardens and fill the tank of the Jami' Mosque. This suburb
they call As Suk al Asfal (or the Lower Market), for it stands
lower than the town, and the walled town above is called As Suk
al A 'la (or the Upper Market). In this suburb also are many
Madrasahs (colleges), which stand on the south bank of the 'Asi.
Beside the city stands an ancient castle wondrously fortified and
constructed. Al Malik al Mansur Muhammad ibn Taka ad Din
'Amr ibn Shahinshah ibn Ayyub dug a ditch here of 100 ells and
more in length. This castle is part of the ancient town of the
(pre-Islamic) Days of Ignorance, mentioned by the poet Imr al
Kais in his verses. In the year 271 (884) Ahmad ibn at Tayyib
describes this (castle) from eye-witness as a village with a stone
wall in which were large stone buildings, with the 'Asi flowing in
front of them, watering the gardens and turning the water-wheels,
but it is to be noted that he calls it a Tillage. Beside the Lower
Market also is a castle called Al Mansuriyyah. It stands rather
above the suburb, and to the left. In this Lower Market are
many shops and houses for merchants and bazaars." (Yak., ii.
330; Mar., i. 318.)
" Kurun Hamah (the Horns of Hamah) are two peaks standing
opposite each other. They are the summits of a hill overhanging
Hamah." (Yak., ii. 332.)
" Hamah," says Dimashki, in 1300, " is a provincial chief town,
and seat of Government. A fine city, and well fortified, and with
excellent provisions. The Nahr 'Asi flows between the two halves
of the town, and the two are connected by a bridge. Along the
'Asi banks are huge water-wheels called Na'urah, such as you see
nowhere else ; they raise the water from the river to irrigate the
gardens. The place has many fruits, especially the apricot
(Mishmish) called Kaftiri Lauzi (camphorated with almond
flavour), which you will see nowhere else." (Dim., 206.)
360 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" Hamah," says Abu-1 Fida, " stands between the Hims and the
Kinnasrin provinces. It is a very ancient city, and one men-
tioned in the books of the Israelites. It is one of the pleasantest
places in Syria. The greater part of the town to the east and
north is surrounded by the river 'Asi. There is a very high-built
castle, well fortified. Within the town are mills turned by water,
and all its gardens are watered by w r ater-wheels (Na'urah), and the
water runs through most of the houses. Hamah and Shaisar are
noted above all other towns of Syria for the number of their water-
wheels." (A. F., 263.)
Ibu Batutah passed through Hamah in 1355. After remarking
that the river Al 'Asi (Orontes), which runs through the city,
makes it a pleasant town to live in, with its many gardens full of
trees and fruits, he speaks of the large suburb called Al Mansuriyyah,
with its fine market, and Mosque, and baths. " In Hamah are
many fruits of excellent qualities, among others the almond-
apricot. Its kernel, when broken, contains an almond. The
water-wheels here are celebrated." (I. B., i. 141.)
HALAB (ALEPPO).
" Halab is the capital of the Kinnasrin district," say Istakhri and
Ibn Haukal, writing in the latter half of the tenth century, A.D.
" It was very populous, and the people were possessed of much
wealth, and commerce throve, for the city lies on the high road
between 'Irak and the Fortresses, and the rest of Syria. But the
Greeks took the city (under the Emperor Nicephorus),* and its
stone wall was of no avail to it. They ruined the Mosque, and
took away captive all its women and children, and burnt the
houses. Halab had a castle, but it was not a strong place, and
was in no way well built. All the population had fled up to it,
thinking to take refuge therein (from the Greeks), and here most
of them perished with all their goods and chattels. The
remainder, both of the citizens and of the refugees from the
country round, were all taken prisoners. The people of the
district were all put to the sword. This is a sad matter to
* In A.D. 961. The Byzantines held Aleppo for a very short time, and
were unable to reduce the citadel.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 361
hear of, and great was the distress throughout Islam and among
the Muslims. The city had originally five markets,' and baths, and
hostels, and quarters and broad squares. But Halab is now like
a prisoner (being in the hands of the Infidels).
"The river of Halab is called Abu 1 Hasan, or Kuwaik (the
river Chalus). The drinking water of the population comes from
this, and there is but little sediment in it. The prices here are
still cheap, for in old days its prosperity was great, and its food
stuffs abundant. But now every year the Greeks take from them
tribute, and they tax all the lands and farms. The people of
Halab have made a truce with the Greeks ; but their goods are
not a twentieth of what they were." (Is., 61 ; I. H., 117.)
"Halab," writes Mukaddasi in 985, "is an excellent, pleasant,
and well fortified city, the inhabitants of which are cultured and
rich, and endowed with understanding. The city is populous,
and built of stone, standing in the midst of its lands. It possesses
a well fortified and spacious castle, provided with water, and here
is the Sultan's treasury. The great Mosque stands in the town.
The inhabitants drink the water of the Kuwaik river, which flows
into the town through an iron grating, near by the palace of
Saif-ad-Daulah. The castle is not very large, but herein the
Sultan has his abode. The city has seven gates, namely : Bab
Hims (Emessa Gate), Bab-ar-Rakkah, Bab Kinnasrin, Bab-al-Yahud
(Gate of the Jews), Bab-al-'Irak, Bab Dar-al-Batikh (Gate of the
Watermelon House), and Bab Antakiyyah (Gate of Antioch).
The Bab-al-Arba'in (Gate of the Forty) is now closed." (Muk.,
ISS-)
The seven gates mentioned by Mukaddasi, may be identified as
follows : i. The Emessa Gate to the south, is marked as
" Damascus Gate " in the plan given by Russell in his " Natural
History of Aleppo," 2nd ed., 1794. It is at the present day
called Bab al Makam (Ibrahim), the Gate of Abraham's Station.
2. Judging from the direction which Rakkah bears from Aleppo
the Rakkah Gate must be the " Bab el Hadeed " of Russell, at the
north-east angle of the Wall. 3. The Kinnasrin Gate is at the
southern end of the West Wall. It was built by Saif ad Daulah
ibn Hamdan. 4. Bab al Yahud, the Jews' Gate, is the present
362 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Bab an Nasr, in the middle of the north wall, along which lies the
Jews' Quarter. It was restored by Saladin's son, Al 'Malik adh
Dhahir, who changed its name to Bab an Nasr Gate of Victory.
(See below, p. 366.) 5. The 'Irak Gate, from its name, is most
probably that to the south-east, marked by Russell as " the Gate
of Neereb." In the present plans of Aleppo, a road leaving the
town at the south-east angle runs to the village of " Nerab."
6. The Watermelon House Gate is probably the same as the Bab
al Janan, or, Gate of the Gardens, given by Russell, and also
mentioned by Yakftt and others under this name. It is in the
West Wall, a little to the north of the Antioch Gate. 7. The
Antioch Gate is so called at the present day. It opens about
the middle of the West Wall, to the north of the Bab Kinnasrin,
and between it and the Gate of the Gardens. The Gate of the
Forty is marked in Russell's plan as " Bab el Urbain." It is at
the north-west angle of the suburb which lies to the north of
Aleppo, beyond the Bab an Nasr.
The traveller Nasir-i-Khusrau, who visited Aleppo in 1047,
writes in his Diary :
" Halab is in appearance a fine city. It has great walls, whose
height I estimate at 25 cubits (or 50 feet) ; also a strong castle,
entirely built on the rock, which I consider to be as large as the
castle at Balkh. All the houses and buildings of Aleppo stand
close one beside the other. This city is the place where they levy
the customs (on merchandise passing) between the lands of Syria
and Asia Minor, and Diyar-Bakr, and Egypt, and 'Irak, and there
come merchants and traders from out all these lands to Aleppo.
The city has four gates namely, Bab al Yahud (the Jews' Gate),
Bab Allah (the Gate of Allah), Bab al Jinan (the Gate of Paradise),
and Bab Antakiyah (the Gate of Antioch). The weight used in
the bazaars of this place is the Dhahiri Ratl, which contains
480 Dirhams weight (or about 3^ lb.)." (N. Kh., 2.)
The Christian physician Ibn Butlan (see above, p. 6) has
left a description of Aleppo, written about the year 1051 A.D.
This is transcribed by Yakut (Yak., ii. 306-308) in his article on
this city ; and he quotes it from the Risalah (or Epistle) written
by Ibn Butlan to his friend Halal ibn Muhsin. The country at
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 363
this time was ruled by the dynasty of the Bani Mirdas. Ibn
Butlan writes :
" We went from Ar Rusafah to Halab in four days. Halab is
a town walled with white stones. There are six gates ; and
besides the wall is a castle (to defend it), in the upper part of
which is a mosque and two churches. In one of these was the
altar on which Abraham used to sacrifice. In the lower part of
the castle is a cave where he concealed his flocks. When he
milked these, the people used to come for their milk, crying,
1 Halaba ya laT Milked yet, or not? asking thus one of the
other ; and hence the city came to be called Halab (milked).
" In the town is a mosque and six churches, also a small
Bimaristan (or hospital). The Jurisprudists are of the sect of the
Imamites. The population drink from the water of cisterns that
are filled by the rains. At the city gate is a river called Kuwaik,
which rises in winter, but falls very low in summer. In the centre
of the town is a high palace, which belonged to the mistress of
Al Buhturi (the poet). Halab is a town that has but little of
fruit, vegetables, or wine, except what is brought thither from the
Greek country. Of the wonders of Halab we may mention that
in the Kaisariyyah (or bazaar) of the cloth-merchants are twenty
shops for the Wakils (or brokers). These men every day sell
goods to the amount of 20,000 Dinars (^ 10,000), and this they
have done for the last twenty years. No part of Halab is at all
in ruins. From Halab we went on to Antakiyyah, which is a day
and a night's journey distant."
"Halab," as Idrisi reports, "is the capital of the Province of
Kinnasrin. It is a large town, and very populous, lying on the
high road to 'Irak, and Fars and Khurasan. It has walls of
white stone. The river Kuwaik flows at its gate, which is a
small stream with but little water. Water is led therefrom by
means of underground channels going into the town, and is dis-
tributed through the markets, streets, and houses. The people
of the town drink of this, and make use of it for all purposes.
In the Castle of Halab is a spring of excellent water."
(Id, 25.)
The traveller Ibn Jubair visited Aleppo in 1185. The follow-
364 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
ing is an abridged translation of the account given in his
Diary :
" Halab lies a night's journey from Al Bab and Buza'ah. It
is a place of saintly remains, with a celebrated and impregnable
castle. It was the city of the Hamdanide Princes, whose dynasty
is now passed away. Saif ad Daulah made it as a bride for beauty
of appearance. The castle stands on the hill, whither, in ancient
times, Abraham was wont to retire at night with his flocks there
to milk them (halaba) giving away of the milk in alms. Hence,
as it is said, is the name of Halab. There is a Mash-had (or
oratory) there, much visited by the people. A copious spring of
water rises in the castle, and they have made two cisterns here to
store the water. Round these tanks are double walls. On the
city-side of the castle is a deep ditch, into which the surplus water
runs. The castle has high walls and towers, and the Sultan's
habitation is here. In the town are fine and wide markets,
covered in by wooden roofs. Shady streets, with rows of shops,
lead up to each of the gates of the Jami' Mosque. Very fine is
this mosque, and beautifully paved is its court. There are fifty
and odd doors opening therein. In the court of the mosque are
two wells. The wood-work of Halab is of excellent renown. Ihe
Mihrab (or prayer-niche) of the mosque is very beautiful, with
wood-work up to the roof, ornamentally carved, and inlaid with
rare woods, and ivory, and ebony. The Mimbar (or pulpit) is
also most exquisite to behold. On the western side of the mosque
is the Madrasah (or college) of the Hanafites, with a fine garden.
In the city are four or five other Madrasahs like to this one, also
a Maristan (or hospital) Suburbs lie all round the city, with
numberless Khans and gardens. A small river runs out of the
city towards the south (called the Kuwaik)." (I. J., 252.)
"Halab,'' says Yakut, "is the capital of the Kinnasrin Province.
It has an excellent climate, and is full of good things. It is said
to be called Halab, because Abraham, when he abode here, used
to milk (halaba} his flocks at Halab. Another account is that
Halab, Hims, and Bardha'ah, were three sisters of the Bani
'Amalik (Amalakites), and that each of them founded a city,
which was called after her name." (Yak., ii. 304; Mar., i. 313.)
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 365
"Barawwa (Bercea) was the ancient name of Halab in Syrian,
and the city was built by Batalimyus ibn Laghus (Ptolemy Lagus)."
(Yak., i. 465; ii. 305 ; Mar., i. 118.)
" A surname of Aleppo is A I Baida, ' the White,' because of
the whiteness of the ground in its neighbourhood." (Yak., i. 792 ;
Mar., i. 190.)
Yakut next proceeds to give Ibn Butlan's description of Aleppo,
translated above, and continues :
" In the Castle of Halab is the Makam Ibrahim (Station of
Abraham), the Friend. Here there is a chest, in which is a piece
of the beard of Yahya ibn Zakariyya (John the Baptist) peace
be on him ! which was discovered in the year 435 (1044). Near
the Bab al Janan (the Gate of the Gardens) is the Mash-had (or
oratory of the Khalif) 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, where he was seen by a
person in a dream. Within the Bab al 'Irak is the mosque called
Ghauth (of Succour), in which is a stone, whereon may be seen
an inscription, said to be in the handwriting of the Khalif 'Ali.
Many other celebrated mosques and sanctuaries are here to be
seen. To the south of the (castle) hill is the one Cemetery of
Aleppo, and near it the Makam, which is called the Makam
Ibrahim (the Station of Abraham). Outside the Bab al Yahud
(the Jews' Gate, to the north) is a stone near the road-side, where
vows are put up to Allah, and over it they are wont to pour rose-
water and perfumes. Muslims, Jews, and Christians alike make
visitation to this spot ; for it is said that under it is the grave of
one of the prophets. Verily I (Yakut) have visited Halab, and
it was of the best of all lands for agriculture. They cultivate
here cotton, sesame (Samsani), water-melons, cucumbers, millet
(Dukhti], vines, maize (Durrali), also apricots, figs, and apples.
They have only the rains to water their lands, and yet they raise
abundant crops, and of such richness as I have not seen in other
lands." (Yak., ii. 308.)
The same author continues :
" The castle of Halab is a wonder to behold, and has become
proverbial for strength and beauty (i3th century). Halab lies in
a flat country. In the centre of the city rises a perfectly circular
and high hill, which has been scarped artificially, and the castle
366 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
is built on its summit. It has a deep ditch, which has been dug
sufficiently deep to reach the water springs. Inside the castle is
a reservoir which is filled with pure water. Also within the
castle is a Jami' Mosque, and a Maidan (or race-course), and
gardens of considerable extent. Al Malik adh Dhahir Ghazi, the
son of Saladin, it was who rebuilt this city, and dug the ditch.
" Halab has seven gates at the present day : Bab Arba'in (Gate
of the Forty) ; Bab al Yahud (Gate of the Jews), which was
restored by Al Malik adh Dhahir, and renamed Bab an Nasr
(Gate of Victory) ; Bab al Janan (the Gate of the Gardens) ;
Bab Antakiyyah ; Bab Kinnasrin ; Bab al 'Irak ; and Bab as Sirr
(the Secret Postern Gate)." (Yak., ii. 310.)
" Halab," writes Dimashki about the year 1300, " is a city that
has been laid in ruins by the Tartars. It has a strong fortress
called Ash Shahba (the Gray, or Gray-white), on account of the
white colour of the stone used. Of old, Halab was the equal
in size of Baghdad or Al Mausil, and its people prided themselves
on their fine raiment and personal comeliness and horses and
houses. The river Kuwaik runs by it." (Dim., 202.)
Abu-1 Fida about the same period remarks :
" Halab in the Kinnasrin province is a large and very ancient
city, with a high-built and strong castle. There is to be seen here
Abraham's Station. Halab has few gardens, though the Kuwaik
river runs by the town. It lies on the road from 'Irak to the
Frontier Fortresses. From Halab to Kinnasrin is 12 miles.
Muhallabi describes Halab as a fine city, with stone walls, well-
built and populous, with an impregnable castle it its centre.
Halab lies 36 miles from Ma'arrah and 15 leagues from Balis."
(A. F., 267.)
Aleppo was visited by Ibn Batutah in 1355. He speaks of it
as a large and magnificent city, and quotes Ibn Jubair's descrip-
tion. " Its castle is called Ash Shahba (the Gray), and within it
are two wells with springs of fresh water. Round the castle are
double walls and towers and a ditch. The Mash-had there is
called the Oratory of Abraham. It is also called halab Ibrahim,
that is to say, the Fresh Milk of Abraham, for he lived here and
gave the milk of his cattle to the poor. The Kaisariyyah (or
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 367
Bazaar) of Halab is very fine and unique for beauty. It goes all
round the Mosque, and the streets of shops (in the Bazaar) lead
up each to one of the Mosque gates. This Jami' Mosque is
one of the finest in the world. In its court is a tank of water, and
all round is a fine colonnade. . The Mosque pulpit is a marvel of
ivory and ebony. There are in Aleppo a Maristan (hospital) and
many colleges. Outside the city is a vast plain, where fruit-trees
and vines are cultivated. There are also gardens on the banks
of the 'Asi (Orontes, a mistake for the Kuwaik), which flows by
here, passing Halab." (I. B., i. 146-151.)
ANTAKIYYAH (ANTIOCH).
'Hie earlier Arab writers give the following curious notices of
this city and its neighbourhood.
Biladhuri in 869 relates :
""The road between Antakiyyah and Al Massissah (Mopsuestia)
was of old infested with wild beasts, and people met lions here.
In the Khalif al Walid's days they complained much of this, and
he sent there 4,000 buffaloes bulls and cows and these Allah
caused to suffice for the purpose (of satisfying the wild beasts).
Others were sent later also, but these are the first buffaloes that
came into Syria." (Bil., 167 ; also I. F., 113.)
The historian Mas'udi, who wrote, in 943, his voluminous work
entitled " The Meadows of Gold," notices on several occasions the
remarkable buildings of Antioch, and the natural peculiarities of
the country.
" It is not denied (he says) by men of knowledge that there
are in certajn regions of the earth, towns and villages which no
scorpions or serpents can enter. Such are Hims, Ma'arrah, Misr
(Cairo), and Antakiyyah." (Mas, ii. 406.)
" The month of the latter Kanun (January) has thirty-one days.
On the first of the month is the day of the Kalandas (Kalends)
which is a feast-day among the Syrians. At Antakiyyah on the
eve they make illuminations and exhibit the Eucharist (Idsima}.
This takes place generally in the Church of Al Kusiyan, which is
one of the most venerated churches of that city. The Christians
368 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
of Antakiyyab, both of great and of low degree, take part in these
rejoicings and diversions, and in the lighting of illuminations ; for
in this city of Antakiyyah is their Patriarch, and the day is held
in much honour among them. The- Christians call Antioch the
City of God, also the City of the King, and the Mother of Cities,
for Christianity was first shown forth here." (Mas , ii. 406.)
"There is at Antakiyyah the Church of Paul, which is known
also by the name of Dair al Baraghith (the Convent of Bugs) ; it
stands adjoining the city gate called Bab al Faris (the Knight's
Gate). There is also here another church, which they call
Ashmunit, where the Christians keep a festival, held high in
honour among them, and this Church was originally in the hands
of the Jews. There are also here the Kanisah Barbara (Church
of Barbara), and the Kanisah Maryam (of Mary), which last is a
round church, and one of the wonders of the world for the beauty
of its construction and its height. The Khalif Al Walid, son of
'Abd al Malik carried off from this church a number of marble
and alabaster columns, of wondrous size, to place in the Mosque
at Damascus. They were transported by water down to the coast
near to Damascus. The greater number of the columns, however,
still remain in the Church at Antioch, as may be seen at the
present day." (Mas., ii. 407.)
"There is at Antakiyyah a building called Ad Dirnas (the
Crypt). It stands on the right-hand side of the Great Mosque,
and is built of huge blocks of stone, as though of 'Adite (Cyclo-
peian) days, and it is wonderful to see. On certain of the nights
of summer, the moon's (beams) as she rises each night, shine in
through a different window. It is said that this Ad Dimas is a
Persian building of the time when the Persians (under Sapor, in
A.D. 260) held Antakiyyah, and that it was built to be their Fire
Temple." (Mas., iv. 91.)
" At Antakiyyah, on a hill within the city walls, is an ancient
temple of the Greeks. At this place the Muslims have con-
structed a watch-tower from whence guards, continually posted
here, can spy out any who come by sea or by land from the Greek
country. This temple of old the Greeks held in great veneration,
and made their sacrifices therein. It was ruined by Constantine
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 369
tlu- (Ireat, the son of Helena, who propagated the Christian
religion. The place was at that time filled with idols and statues
of gold and jewels of all kinds. Others affirm that the temple in
question stood in the city of Antakiyyah to the right of the present
Jami' Mosque. This was a great temple also, and the Sabaeans
report it to have been built by Saklabiyfts. At the present day,
in the year 332 A.H., there is at this place the Suk (or market) of
the armourers and lance-makers. Thabit ibn Kurrah ibn Karani,
the Sabaean of Harran, who went to (the Khalif) Al Mu'tadhid in
the year 289 (902), visited this temple and showed great venera-
tion for the same, and what we have said above comes from him.''
(Mas., iv. 55.)
The geographers Istakhri and Ibn Haukal give the following
account of Antioch during the tenth century. It will be remem-
bered that the city had come into the hands of the Muslims at the
time of the first Arab Conquest of Syria in 635 ; in 964 the army
of the Emperor Nicephorus Phocas reconquered Antioch, and it
remained in the power of the Byzantines for the next hundred
and twenty years. Istakhri (951) wrote immediately before the
re-entry of the Greeks ; Ibn Haukal (978), his continuator, shortly
after. Their account is the following :
"Antakiyyah is the capital of the 'Awasim Province. After
Damascus it is the pleasantest place in Syria. At this present
time it has stone walls, which go round the city and enclose the
mountain (Silphius), that overhangs it. Within this wall are
fields and gardens, and mills and pasture-lands, and trees, and all
manner of pleasure-places, of which the people are very proud.
They say that the circumference of the walls is a day's journey.
There is running water in all the markets, the streets, and the
houses ; and also in the Jami' Mosque. The town possesses
villages and farms, with many beautiful and fertile districts. But
the enemy (the Greeks) have taken possession of them all. In
point of fact some decrease of prosperity had already taken place
during the last days of the Muslims, but the ruin has increased
since the place came into the hands of the Greeks, who took it
in the year (A.H.) 359. The Rock (as Sakhrati) which is in
Antakiyyah, is known as the Rock of Moses, and they relate that
24
370 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Moses met Al Khidr (St. Elias) in this place." (Is., 62 ; I. H.,
119, for the most part copied by A. F., 233, 257.)
The Rock of Moses, according to other authorities, was shown
at Sharwan in Armenia. (Yak., iii. 282.) It may be noted that
the year given as the date of the reconquest of Antioch by the
Byzantines, namely, 359, corresponding with 970 A.D., does not
agree exactly with the Western account as quoted in Gibbon's
Decline and Fall (chap. LI I., end), where the event is set down
to the year 964 (A.H. 353).
Our next account of Antioch is from the pen of the physician
Ibn Butlan, a Christian Arab, who visited the city in 1051, and
wrote a description of it in an epistle addressed to a friend at
Baghdad. This epistle is quoted by Yakut, of which the follow-
ing is a translation.
"Says Ibn Butlan, in the epistle he wrote to Abu-1 Husain Hilal
ibn al Muhsin as Sabi, at Baghdad, in the year 440 and odd :
" We left Halab (Aleppo) intent on journeying to Antakiyyah
(Antioch), and the distance is a day and a night's march ; and we
found all the country between Halab and Antakiyyah populous,
nowhere ruined abodes of any description. On the contrary, the
soil was everywhere sown with wheat and barley, which grew
under the olive-trees ; the villages ran continuous, their gardens
full of flowers, and the waters flowing on every hand, so that the
traveller makes his journey here in contentment of mind, and
peace and quietness.
" Antakiyyah is an immense city. It possesses a wall and an
outer wall (fast/}. The wall has three hundred and sixty towers,
and these are patrolled in turn by four thousand guards, who are
sent to Antakiyyah every year, from the presence of the king in
Constantinople, as warrant for the safe-keeping of the city, and in
the second year they are changed. The plan of the city is that of
a semicircle ; its diameter lying along the mountain (Silphius),
and the city wall climbs up over the mountain to its very summit ;
and further, the wall completes the semicircle (in the plain below).
On the summit of the mountain, but within the wall, is a Castle
(Kala'ali), which appears quite small from the city below, on
account of its distance up; and this mountain shades the city
rROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 371
from the sun* which only begins to shine over the town about the
second hour of the day. In the wall surrounding (the city) and
in the part not on the mountain, are five gates.
" In the centre of the city is the church of Al Kusiyan. It was
originally the palace of Kusiyan, the king, whose son, Futrus (St.
Peter), chief of the disciples, raised to life.t It consists of a
chapel (ffaikti/), the length of which is 100 paces, and the
breadth of it cSo, and over it is a church (Kanisa/i), supported on
columns, in which the judges take their seat to give judgment,
also those sit here who teach Grammar and Logic. At one of the
gates of this church is a Clepsydra (Finjan), showing the hours.
It works day and night continuously, twelve hours at a round, and
it is one of the wonders of the world.
" In the upper portion (of the city) are five terraces, and on the
fifth of these are the baths, and gardens, where beautiful points of
view are obtained. You may hear in this spot the murmuring of
waters, and the cause thereof is that the waters run down near
this place from the mountain which overhangs the city. There
are in Antakiyyah more churches than can be counted ; every one
of them ornamented with gold and silver, and coloured glass, and
they are paved in squares. In the town is a Bimaristan (or
hospital), where the patriarch himself tends the sick ; and every
year he causes the lepers to enter the bath, and he washes their
hair with his own hands. Likewise the king also does this service
every year to the poor. The greatest of the lords and patricians
vie in obtaining of him permission to wash these poor people,
after the like fashion, and serve them. In this city there are hot
baths, such as you can find the equal nowhere else in any other
town for luxury and excellence ; for they are heated with myrtle
wood (at as), and the water flows in torrents, and with no scant.
* Mount Silphius overhangs Antioch on the south side.
t The church here alluded to must, I imagine, be that dedicated to SS. Peter
and Paul, and built by the Emp-ror Justinian, where, in later times (according
to the traveller Willebrand, of Oldenburg), the Latin Princes of Antioch were
buried. Who is referred to under the name of Kusiyan I have been unable to
discover, neither is there any mention in the Bible of St. Peter having raised a
king's sen to life at Antioch. According to Church tradition, based on
Gal. ii. II et scq., St. Peter was Bishop of Antioch before goim; to Rome.
372 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
In the church of Al Kusiyan are innumerable servants who all
receive their daily rations, and there is an office (diwan} for the
expenditure and receipts of the church, in which office are some
ten or more accountants.
" Some year and a part ago a thunderbolt struck this church,
and the manner of its doing so was most extraordinary. Now at
the close of the year 1362 of Alexander, which coincides with the
year 442 of the Hijrah (and 1050 A.D.), the winter rains had been
heavy, and some part of the days of the month Nisan (April) were
already past, when, on the night whose morrow was Saturday, the
1 3th of Nisan, there came thunder and lightning such as had
never been known at the time, nor remembered, nor heard of in
the past. The claps of thunder were oft repeated, and so terrible
as to cause the people to cry out in fear. Then on a sudden, a
thunderbolt fell and struck a mother-of-pearl screen which stood
before the altar in the church of Al Kusiyan, and it split from off
the face of this (screen) of the Christians, a piece like what might
be struck off by an iron pickaxe with which stone is hewn. The
iron cross, too, which was set on the summit of this mother-of-
pearl (screen), was thrown down (by the thunderbolt), and re-
mained on the place where it fell ; and a small piece also was cut
off from the mother-of-pearl. And the thunderbolt descended
through the crevice in the mother-of-pearl, and travelled down to
the altar along a massive silver chain, by which is suspended the
censer ;* now the size of this crevice was of two finger-breadths.
A great piece of the chain was broken off, and part of it was
melted, and what was melted of it was found dropped down on
the ground below. A silver crown which hung before the table of
the altar was also thrown down. Beyond the table (of the altar),
and to the west of it, stood three wooden stools, square, and
high, on which were usually set three large crosses of silver gilt,
studded with precious stones. But the night before they had
removed two of the crosses, those on either side, taking them up
* The word given in the text is Ath Thumiyatiin, evidently not an Arabic
word. In Du Cange (Gloss. Media et Irifima Grcecitatis, Ludg. Bat.
mdclxxxviii., p. 502), the word Qvptarbv occurs, said to mean " Thuribulum "
(a censer), " Acerra " (a casket for incense), which is probably the object
intended.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 373
to the church treasury, and leaving only the middle cross in its
usual place. Now the two stools on either side were smashed (by
the thunderbolt), and the pieces sent flying over and beyond the
altar, though here there was seen no mark of fire, as had appeared
in the case of the chain, but the stool in the middle remained
untouched, nor did anything happen to the cross that was set
thereon.
" Upon each of the four marble columns which supported the
silver dome covering the table of the altar was cloth of brocade
wrapping round the column. Each one of these suffered a greater
or less stroke (from the thunderbolt) ; but the stroke fell in each
case on a place (in the cloth) where it had been already worm-
eaten and worn to shreds ; but there was no appearance as though
flame had scorched it, nor as though it had been burnt. The
table (of the altar) was not touched, nor was any damage done to
the altar-cloths upon it ; at least, no sign of any such damage was
to be seen. Some of the marble (slabs) which were in front (on
the pavement below) the table of the altar were struck as though
by the blow of a pickaxe, and the mortar and lime setting thereof
(was cracked). Among the rest was a large slab of marble, which
was torn from its bed and fractured, and thrown up on to the
square top of the silver dome covering the table of the altar ; and
here it rested, the remaining pieces of the marble being torn from
their bed, and scattered far and near. In the neighbourhood of
the altar was a wooden pulley, in which was a hemp-rope quite-
close to the silver chain which had been broken, and part of it
melted and (to this rope was) attached a large silver tray, on
which stood the bowls* for the glass lamps. This tray remained
untouched none of the lamps were overturned, nor aught else
thereon ; neither did any damage happen to a candle that stood
near the two wooden stools (as already mentioned). The greater
part of these wondrous occurrences were witnessed by many who
were in Antakiyyah.
* In the text the word is Firdkh, which means, literally, " chickens." The
word, however, has other meanings, as "archway," "folio of paper," etc., and
must, I imagine, be taken here in the sense of a "bowl " or other vessel in
which the wick of the lamp was set.
374 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
" Furcher, outside the city, on the night of Monday, the 5th of
the month Ab (August), of the year before mentioned, there was
seen in the heavens the likeness of a window, through which light
shone out broad and glittering, and then became extinguished.
The people waited till morning, expecting some event therefrom.
And, after a time news came that in the early part of the day of
that Monday, at the city of Ghunjurah,* which lies in the Greek
country, and is nine days' journey from Antakiyyah, terrible earth-
quakes had taken place, following one another continuously. The
greater number of the houses (of this city) had been thrown
down,' and a piece of ground outside the town had been swallowed
up ; while a large church and a fine fortress which had stood
here had both disappeared, so that no trace remained of either.
From the crevice in the earth extremely hot water had been thrown
up, flowing forth from many springs. It had submerged seventy
farmsteads. The people fleeing therefrom had escaped for safety
to the hill-tops and high places around. The water covered the
surface of the ground during seven days, spreading round about
the city for the distance of two days' journey. After that time it
disappeared, and the place where it had been became a swamp
A number of those who were witnesses of these events testified
thereto, and the people of Antakiyyah reported to me (Ibn
Butlan) all that I have here set down. They related, further, that
when the inhabitants had carried up their goods to the hill-tops,
the ground rocked so by the strength of the earthquake that the
chattels came rolling down again to the level earth below.
" Outside the city (of Antakiyyah) is a river called Al Maklubf
"" This Ghunjurah is, I conclude, the town of Gangra, the capital of Paphla-
gonia, and the metropolitan see of the province. Yakut does not mention
Ghunjurah elsewhere. The geographer Kaswini (Wtistenfeld's edition of the
text, vol. ii. 368) says that Ghunjurah is a city in the Greek territory, and
stands on a river called Al Makldb (the Overturned river) a name also given
to the Orontes, as stated above (p. 59), because it flows from south to north,
contrary to the habit of other rivers. This other river Al Maklub must,
however, be the name of one of the affluents of the Halys, which flows north
into the Euxine, on which the town of Gangra is built. Kaswini gives the
story of the great earthquake, and inundation, in much the same words as
those found in our text.
t Here the river Oronte?.
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND ClllEl- I'O \\~NS. 37$
(the Overturned), because it takes its course from south to north.
It is of the size of the Nahr 'Isa (in Babylonia). There are along
its banks many mills, and it waters the gardens and grounds (of
the city)."
" Saith Yakut : So ends what we have transcribed from the
work of Ibn Butlan." (Yak., i. 382-385.)
In 1084 the citadel of Antioch was betrayed by one of its
garrison, and the city came into the hands of Sulaiman ibn
Kutlimish, the Saljuk Sultan of Iconium. Fourteen years later,
however (in 1098), Antioch was again retaken by the Christians
namely, by the army of the First Crusadeafter a siege which
lasted nine months, and was characterized by many extraordinary
and miraculous events. Under Kohemond and his successors,
Antioch became a Christian principality, and remained so for a
hundred and eighty years, until conquered by Sultan Baibars in
1268.
In 1154 Idrisi gives the following account of the city :
" Antakiyyah is a city magnificently situated, with agreeable
environs. With the exception of Damascus, there is none that
can equal it, either within or without. It has water in plenty
running through its bazaars and road-ways, and into the castles and
through the streets. There is a wall going round both the town
and the gardens : it is 12 miles in length. This wall is marvellous
and impregnable. It is built of stones, and encloses both the
city and the mountain that overhangs it. Within the city (wall)
are mills, and orchards, and gardens, with vegetables and other
useful growths. The bazaars of the city are thronged, and have
splendid wares exposed here, and all necessary goods and needful
chattels. The good things of the place are innumerable, and its
blessings manifold. They make here plain stuffs (not striped),
that are renowned, of the sort known as Al ' Attabi (moire"), also
stuffs called Ad Dastaw.ii, and Al Isfahani, and the like.''
(Id, 23.)
" In Antakiyyah/' according to ! Ali of Herat, " is the tomb
Habib an Najjar." (Oxf. MS., folio n, verso.} Yakut, and the
author of the Marasid, add little to details already given. Yakut
gives Ibn Butlan's long account, already translated. He further
376 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
states that the city was founded by Antiyukhus (Antiochus), the
second king after Alexander. He mentions a gate called Bab
Muslim (still so called), where Muslim ibn 'Abd Allah was slain
when the Greeks tried to retake the city. (Yak., iii. 383.)
"Between Antakiyyah and the sea is a distance of 2 leagues.
Antioch has a port called As Suwaidiyyah (see Part II.), where
the Frank ships lie. The merchandise is carried up to Antioch
on beasts of burden." (Yak., iii. 385.) Yakut next gives in
epitome the history and dates of the various sieges, and says in
conclusion :
" In Antioch is the tomb of Habib an Najjar (the carpenter),
which is visited from far and wide. Habib is said to have lived
in Antioch, and to have come there from a far city, and preached
to the people, declaring that he was an apostle.'' (Yak.,
iii. 387.)
Dimashki has the following :
"Antakiyyah is the chief of the coast towns. It was anciently
the capital (of Syria) under the Greek dominion, and they named
it, in honour, Madinat Allah (the City of God). Antioch is a very
ancient city. It is enclosed by a great wall that embraces four
hills, covered with woods and gardens. Habib an Najjar was a
native of this place, who is mentioned in the chapter of the Kuran
Yd Stn (xxxvi. 26). It is here stated that Habib cried aloud,
saying, * Oh that my people knew how gracious God hath been
to me, and that He hath made me one of His honoured ones !'
For this Habib, when he was sent as an apostle to the people of
this city (of Antioch), was not credited by them, and they cut off
his head. Thereupon he took up his head in his left hand, and
then placing it on the palm of his right hand, spoke the words
quoted above. And for three days and nights he walked thus in
their streets and market-places, reciting these same words."
(Dim., 206.)
Abu-1 Fida (A. F., 257) adds little to the above accounts, from
which he freely quotes. The city was visited by Ibn Batutah in
1355, who, after a general description, speaks of the great city
wall as already a ruin, having been destroyed when Sultan Baibars
took the city from the Christians in 1268. He mentions the tomb
PROVINCIAL CAPITALS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 377
of Habib an Najjar, and extols the gardens and the fertlity of the
country round, which is watered by the river 'Asi (Orontes).
(I. B., i. 162.)
TARSUS.
" A very great and celebrated city," writes Ibn Haukal in 978.
" It has round it a double stone wall, and the garrison is of both
horse and foot soldiers, also munitions and provisions are kept
here, and the water-supply is abundant. The city is extremely
well built and populous, and provisions are cheap. Between this
city and the Greek territory rises a high mountain range, an off-
shoot of the Jabal Lukkam, which acts as a barrier between the
two worlds (of Islam and Christendom). There are among the
population of Tarsus many persons of discernment and wisdom,
men of prudence and eminence who understand various matters,
and also possess wisdom and intelligence and watchfulness. It is
stated that there are usually in this city 100,000 horsemen, and
there were very near this number at the time when I (Ibn Haukal)
visited the city. And the reason thereof is this : that from all the
great towns within the borders of Sijistan, Kirman, Fars, Khurasan
and the Jabal (Media), also Tabaristan, Mesopotamia and Adhar-
baijan, and from the countries of Al 'Irak, Al Hijjaz, Al Yaman,
Syria and Egypt, and Al Maghrib (Morocco), there is no city but
has in Tarsus a House (Ddr) for its townsmen. Here the Ghazis
(or Warriors of the Faith) from each particular country live. For
when they have once reached Tarsus they settle there and remain
in garrison. Among them prayer and worship are most diligently
performed, and funds are sent to them, and they receive alms,
rich and plentiful. For there is hardly a Sultan who does not send
here some auxiliary troops : and men of riches give their aid for
arming and despatching thither the volunteers who have devoted
themselves to this service. In ever)- country where I have been,
the rich and powerful do set apart sums for this purpose, as a tax
on their farms, and fields, and crops, or from their shops in the
market-places. But the warriors in Tarsus come thither only to
perish, and it is as though none arrived ; they are lost in the
battles, and it is almost as if none came. It is even as Allah
hath said in the Kuran (xix., 98) : ' Canst thou search out one
378 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
of them ? or canst thou hear a whisper from them?'" (Is., 64 ;
I. H., 122, copied in part by A. F., 249.)
"Tarsus," says Biladhuri, "was rebuilt by the Khalifs Al
Mahdi and Ar Rashid, by whom it was refortified and garrisoned."
(Bil., 169, and A. F., 113.)
" The Khalif Al Mamun," says Mas'udi, " was buried at Tarsus,
on the left-hand side of the Mosque. Tarsus was originally gar-
risoned by 8,000 men. The Gate of the Holy War (Bab al Jihad)
is that from which the expeditions against the Infidels set out.''
(Mas., vii. 2 ; viii. 72.)
" Tarsus," reports Idrisi, " is a great city with double stone
walls. It has much merchandise, and the population is very
numerous. The lands here are fertile in the extreme. Between
it and the Greek territory are the Lukkam Mountains, which rise
as a dividing wall between the two worlds (of Islam and Christen-
dom).'' (Id., 25.)
" Tarsus," writes Yakut, " is a city of the Syrian Thughur (or
Frontier Fortress). It lies 6 leagues from Adhanah. The city
is divided by the river Al Baradan (Cydnus). The tomb of
Al Mamun is to be seen here. Between the two cities of Tarsus
and Adana are the Fanduk (hostelry) of Bugha and the Fanduk
al Jadid (the New Hostelry). Tarsus has double walls and a
broad ditch, also six gates. This Frontier City of the Muslims
remained in their hands till the year~354 (965), when Nikfur
(Nicephorus), King of the Greeks, having conquered the Thughur
(Frontier Fortresses) and Al Massissah, laid siege to Tarsus,
and took it by capitulation. Then all the Muslims who would,
were allowed to leave the city, taking with them their goods.
Those who remained had to pay the capitation-tax. The Jami',
and other Mosques, were destroyed. Nikfur burnt all the
Kurans ; further, he took all the arms away from the arsenals.
Tarsus and all the country round has remained in the hands of
the Infidels to this day (1225)." (Yak., iii. 526; Mar., ii. 200.)
Dimashki (Dim., 214) and Abu-1 Fida (A. F., 249) add nothing
to the above
PART II.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PLACES IN PALESTINE AND SYRIA.
THE place-names in Syria and Palestine form an interesting
record, bearing the impress of the various nations and creeds that,
during successive epochs, have held dominion in the Holy Land.
The Canaanite and the Hebrew, the Greek, the Roman and the
Byzantine, the Arab and the Turk, all have in turn imposed their
names on the towns they have founded or rebuilt as a glance
over the following pages will show. But in spite of foreign in-
vasion and settlement, the bulk of the population of Syria always
has been, and is still, Semitic in race, and hence it is natural to
find that the great majority of the place-names are Semitic
(Hebrew, Aramaic, or Arabic) in etymology.
After the Arab conquest in the seventh century, the majority of
the Greek names imposed by the Byzantines (and by their predeces-
sors, the Romans and the Successors of Alexander) fell into disuse,
their places being once again taken by the older Semitic names,
which probably had never fallen into desuetude among the rural,
and therefore purely Semitic, population of the country.
This reversion from the Greek name to the name used in the
Old Testament, is, however, a rule to which there are some excep-
tions, for nothing is more curious than the apparently arbitrary
manner in which, while some of the ancient names are at the
present time fully retained in use, others have completely fallen
into oblivion. Of places which the Greeks renamed, but of
which the Greek name was, at the Arab conquest, replaced
by the older Semitic form, are such cities as : 'Akkah (St. Jean
d'Acre), called in Judges Accho, which the Greeks named
Ptolemais ; Baisan, the Biblical Bethshean, which in Greek was
called Scythopolis ; 'Amman, the Rabbath Ammon of King
380 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
David's wars, which Ptolemy II. rebuilt and named Philadelphia ;
Bait Jibril, the Betogabra of Josephus, called in Greek Eleuthero-
polis ; and many others.
An exception to the foregoing, as being a place which at the
present day bears a Greek name (slightly corrupted in the Arabic
pronunciation), and of *vhich the ancient Hebrew name is to-day
utterly unknown, is the Biblical Shechem, ever since the Arab
conquest known as Nabulus, from Neapolis, the New Town, built
by the Emperor Titus.
The purely Greek place-names that have survived (in an Arabic
form) down to the present day may in general, for their etymology,
be referred to two classes. To the first class belong the names
of towns in Greece which the Macedonians, in memory of their
former homes, gave to their new settlements ; the second class
comprises the names of such towns as the successors of Alexander
founded or rebuilt, and named after Alexander, or some member
of the reigning family of the Seleucidae. To the first of these
categories belong Ar Rastan, Arethusa ; Kurus, Cyrrhus ; Fahl,
Pella ; to the second the many Alexandrias under the Arabicized
form of Al Iskandariyyah and Al Iskandarunah ; and such cities
as Antakiyyah, Antioch ; Al Ladhikiyyah, Laodicea ; Afamiyyah or
Famiyya, Apamea ; and some others.
Baniyas, Paneas (named from a temple to the god Pan) ;
Tarabulus, Tripolis ; and Nabulus, Neapolis, come under neither
of the above categories, but the etymology is not far to seek.
Among the names of Roman origin are such as Al Lajjun, Legio ;
Tabariyyah, Tiberias ; and the many Kaisariyyahs, Caesarea
Palaestina, and others.
Of Arab names that almost letter for letter reproduce the
Hebrew word, only a few need here be cited, for examples meet
the eye on every hand. Ba'albakk, 'Athlith, and other such
words of purely Semitic etymology, must date, without doubt, from
the very earliest ages, though the Hebrew or Aramaic form may
not happen to be found in the Books of the Old Testament.
Numberless other examples of the Hebrew name in an Arabic
form occur as etymological examples, proving the extraordinary
vitality of the ancient pronunciation even in minor details. Such
AL 'ABADIYYAH.ABIL AS SUK. 381
are Maab, Moab ; Ariha, Jericho ;* Yafah, Joppa ; Kadas,
Kadesh ; Azdud, Ashdod ; 'Afik, Apheca ; Ghazzah, Gaza ; and
'Askalan, Ascalon.
This last (Ascalon) is curious as an exception to the rule that
the guttural aspirate, peculiar to the Semitic languages, and known
as the letter 'Ain, when it occurs in the Hebrew, is represented
by a corresponding 'Ain (or Chain) of the Arabic, e.g., Arabic
'Ashtara, Hebrew 'Ashtaroth. But Ascalon in Hebrew is spelt
with an initial Aleph (Ashkelon), while in Arabic the name com-
mences with an 'Ain ('Askalan). f
This interchange of Aleph and 'Ain is not, however, unknown
in Arab words, an example occurring in the name Barin, which is
also pronounced Ba'rin (with an 'Ain) ; further, that 'Ain some-
times interchanges with the hard, or the soft, H, is seen in such
examples as Zurrah, for Zura',; and in the name of one of the
gates of the Sanctuary at Makkah, which Yakut notes is found
written and pronounced either Bab al Hazurah, or Al 'Azurah
(with initial Ha, or 'Ain).
AL 'ABADIYYAH. "A village (of the district) of Al Marj, near
Damascus." (Yak., iii. 599; Mar., ii. 231.)
ABAWA. "The name of a place, or of a mountain in Syria.
Mentioned in the poems of An Nabighah." (Yak., i. 101 ;
Mar., i. 17.)
'ABB&D. " A mountain in Syria." (Yak., iii. 608 ; Mar.,
ii. 234.)
ABIL. "A village of Hims, lying near the city, to the south,
and about 2 miles distant." (Yak., i. 57 ; Mar., i. 4.)
ABIL AL KAMH (AsiL OF THE WHEAT). u A village belong-
ing to Baniyas. It lies between Damascus and the sea." (Yak.,
i. 56; Mar, i. 4.) This is said to be the Biblical Abel Beth
Maachah of 2 Sam. xx. 14.
ABIL AS SiJK (ABIL OF THE MARKET). " A large village of
the Ghautah (District round Damascus), in the district of the Wadi
(Suk Barada)." (Yak , i. 57 ; Mar., i. 4.) The ancient Abila, of
the Abilene District, mentioned in St. Luke iii. i.
* See also p. 397. t See Index, s. v. "Askaldn.
% See Index, s. v. Ba'rin and Zurrah.
382 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
ABIL AZ ZAIT (AsiL OF THE OLIVES). " In the Jordan Pro-
vince, in the eastern part of Syria. The Prophet despatched an
expedition thither under Usamah.'' (Yak., i. 56 ; Mar., i. 4.)
The present ruin of Abil, the Abila of the Decapolis, lying to the
south of the Yarmuk River, the remains of which have recently
been mapped and described by G. Schumacher, for the P. E. F.
A'BIIJN.- Visited by Nasir-i-Khusrau in 1047. ' From Damun
we passed south to another village, called A'bilin, where there is
the tomb of Hud peace be upon him ! which I visited. Within
the enclosure here is a mulberry-tree ; and there is likewise the
tomb of the prophet 'Uzair peace be upon him ! which I also
visited." (N. Kh., 15.) Guerin considers A'bilin to represent the
ancient Zabulon, destroyed by Cestius. The Muslim prophet
Hud is the Biblical Eber. He was sent to convert the ancient
'Adites, who, refusing to listen to him, were destroyed by a burn-
ing wind. (Kuran vii. 63.) 'Uzair is Ezra, or Esdras. (Kuran
ix. 30 : " Moreover, the Jews say, * 'Uzair is the Son of God.' ")
According to Muslim tradition, Ezra was raised to life after he had
been a hundred years dead, and dictated to the Scribes, from
memory, the whole Jewish Law, which had been lost during the
captivity.
AL ABRASHIVYAH. "A village of Damascus." (Mar., i. 12;
and in Yak., v. n.)
ABTAR. "A place in Syria.'' (Yak., i. 87 ; Mar., i. n.)
'ABftD. " A small town in the Filastin Province, near Jeru-
salem. The name is Hebrew, and is become Arabicized." (Yak.,
iii. 583; Mar., ii. 225.)
ADAMI, OR UDAMI. " A district in Syria belonging to the
Kuda'ah tribe." (Yak., i. 167 ; Mar., i. 36.)
ADHANAH (ADANA). "This city was rebuilt in A.H. 141
(758), and garrisoned by troops from Khurasan (in Persia). Harun
ar Rashid built the castle (Al Kasr) at the Bridge of Adhanah>
over the Saihan (the ancient Sarus), in the year 165 (782)."
(Bil., 1 68 ; copied by Yak., i. 179, and Dim., 214.)
"The city," says Istakhri, "much resembles the one-half of Al
Massissah (Mopsuestia). It stands on the river Saihan, and to
the west of that stream. It is a pleasant city, with fertile lands,
ADHANAH.- ADHRA' AH, OR ADHRI'AH. 383
on the road to Tarsus ; well fortified and populous." (Is., 63 ;
I. H., 122 ; copied by A. F., 249.)
"There are here bazaars, and craftsmen," writes Idrisi, "with
much coming and going. The Saihan River, on which the city
stands, is smaller than the Jaihan (Pyramus). There is across it
a bridge most wonderfully built, and extremely long. This river
flows down out of the (keek country." (Id., 24.)
"The bridge is of stone, and leads from the town to the
fortress, which is on the side towards Al Massissah, and is like a
suburb. The bridge is an arch of a single span. Adhanah has
eight gates, with walls, and a ditch." (Yak., i. 179.)
" The bridge is 170 and odd ells in length." (Dim., 214.)
Adhanah to Antakiyyah (I.H., Id.) 3 miles : to Al Massissah
(Is., I.H., Id.) i day, or 4 leagues (Yak.), or 12 miles (A. F.) ;
to Tarsus (Is., I.H., Id), i day, or 18 miles (A. F.).
'ADHRA. " A well-known village," says Yakut, " of the Ghautah
(District round) Damascus ; or the Iklim Khaulan. Marj 'Adhra
(the Meadow of 'Adra) is called from it, and thereto you descend
coming from the Eagle's Gorge (Thaniyyat al 'Ukab) whence
you perceive the village on your left. There is a minaret
here. In the Mosque of the village is a palm-tree." (Yak.,
iii. 625 ; Mar., ii. 243.)
ADHRA'AH, OR ADHRI'AH. "The capital of the Province of Al
Bathaniyyah." (Yb., 113.) This town is identified with the
Edrei of Numbers xxi. 33, the capital of Bashan.
" Adhri'ah," says Mukaddasi, " is a city lying close to the
desert. To it belongs the District of Jabal Jarash (the hill-country
of Gerasa), which lies opposite (across the Jordan) to the Jabal
'Amilah. This country is full of villages, and Tiberias owes its
prosperity to the neighbourhood of the two districts (of Jabal
Jarash and Jabal 'Amilah)." (Muk , 162.)
In the thirteenth century, according to Yakut (Yak., i. 176), the
city was celebrated for the many learned men who were natives of
the place. (Also Mar., i. 39 ; and A. F., 253.)
Adhra'ah to Damascus (Is., I. H., Id., Yak.), 4 days, or 2 days
(according to Muk.); to Tabariyyah (Muk.), r march; to Az
Zarika (Muk.), i march ; to 'Amman (A. F.), 54 miles ; to As
Sanamain (A. F.), 18 miles.
384 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
ADHRUH. " The capital of the Province of Ash Sharah
(Edom)." (Yb., 114.)
"Adhruh," says Mukaddasi, "is a frontier town, between the
Hijjaz and Syria. They preserve here the Prophet's mantle, and
also a treaty given by him, and written on skin." (Muk., 178.)
Yakut couples Adhruh with Al Jarba, a town lying a mile
distant, both of which were conquered during the Prophet's life-
time in A.H. 9. Adhruh capitulated for 100 Dinars of tribute.
(Yak., i. 174; Mar., i, 39.)
'ADLI)N, OR 'ADHN^JN. "A strong fort on the sea, lying
between Tyre and Sarafand, 20 miles from the latter." (Id., 12.)
Kudamah gives the more ancient spelling, 'Adnun.
" 'Adhnun," says Yakut, " is a town belonging to Saida
(Sidon), on the Damascus coast." (Yak., iii. 626 ; Mar.,
ii. 243.)
The name is probably a corruption of Ad Nonum " at the
ninth mile." The place is identified with the Ornithopolis of
Strabo.
AFAMIYYAH, OR FAMIYYAH (EPIPHANIA). " An ancient Greek
city," says Ya'kubi, in 891, "now in ruins. It is situated on
a large lake." (Yb., in.)
For the lake, see above (p. 70). In Yakut's days (thirteenth
century) the town was apparently fortified. The district of the
same name formed part of the Hims Province. The same authority
states that the city was founded by Seleucus, who also built
Ladhikiyyah (Laodicea), Salukiyyah (Seleucia), and Halab
(Aleppo), six years after the death of Alexander the Great. (Yak.,
i. 322; Mar., i. 97.)
"Famiyyah, or Afamiyyah," Yakut continues, "'is a large city
in the district (Kurah) of the same name. It lies on the coast-
side of the Hims Province. Afamiyyah was taken by capitulation
by Abu 'Ubaidah in the year 17 A.H. (638) on the stipulated pay-
ment of poll tax (Jaziyah) and land-tax (Kharaf)" (Yak.,
iii. 846; Mar., ii. 333.)
In Abu-1 Fida's time (fourteenth century), Famiyyah formed
part of the Shaizar District. " It is also called Afamiyyah, and
is a very ancient town, which has given its name to the district.
AFIK, OR FIK.-AL AHASS AND SHUBAITH. 385
The ancient city stands on a height. There is here a lake of
sweet water, through which flows the Nahr al Maklub (the
Orontes)." (A. F., 263.)
AFIK, OR FiK. "A town, near which is the celebrated Pass
(Akabahy (Yb., 115.) The Biblical Aphek (i Kings xx. 26).
The ' ' Akabah, Pass, or Ascent, lies on the high-road from Damascus
to Jerusalem, and leads down from the plateau of the Hauran to
the Jordan Valley.
" Afik," says Yakut, " is a village of the Hauran, on the road
down to the Ghaur (of the Jordan). It stands at the entrance of
the celebrated Pass of Afik. This Pass is about 2 miles long.
The common people pronounce the name Fik. The town over-
looks Tabariyyah and the lake, and many times have I been
there." (Yak., i. 332 ; iii. 932 ; Mar, i. 82 ; ii. 373.)
'Akabah Fik to Jasim (Muk.), i march, or (I. Kh.) 24 miks;
to Nawa (Muk.), i march ; to Tabariyyah (Is., I.H., Muk.),
i march, or (Id.) part of a day, or (I. Kh.) 6 miles.
AFIJLA. "A village in Syria. A celebrated commentator of
Mutanabbi's poems was a native of this place. He died 441 A.H.'
(Yak., i. 332; Mar., i. 82.)
'AFRA. "A fortress in the Filastin Province, near Jerusalem."
(Yak., iii. 688 ; Mar., ii. 264.)
'AFRABALA. "A place in the Jordan Ghaur (or low-land), near
Baisan and Tabariyyah." (Yak., iii. 688; Mar., ii. 264.)
AL AHASS (THE BALD) AND SHUBAITH. " The name of a large
district, possessing many villages and fields, and lying both north
and south of Halab (Aleppo). Its chief town is Khunasirah,
where the Khalif 'Omar ibn 'Abd al 'Aziz dwelt. Shubaith is a
black mountain in this district. On its summit are four ruined
villages, belonging to the people of Halab. In their neighbour-
hood are mills." (Yak., i. 151 ; Mar., i. 31.)
" Al Ahass," says Abu-1 Fida, " is a mountain-tract, where
there are many villages. It lies east of Halab, between it and
Khunasirah, which last lies beyond to the east again. Shubaith
is a smaller mountain than Al Ahass, and lies to the east of it.
Between the two runs a Wadi, a horse-gallop across, in which lies
Khunasirah." (A. F., 233.)
25
386 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
AL AHKAF (THE SAND-HILLS). "A mountain in Syria." (Yak.,
i. 154; Mar., i. 31.)
'AijA. "A village in the Hauran, near Jasim." (Yak., iii. 750;
Mar., ii. 291.)
'AiN (A SPRING OF WATER). "A village under Jabal al Lukkam,
near Mar'ash. From it is called the Darb (or Road of) al 'Ain,
leading up to Haruniyyah. It is a pleasant hamlet, and counted
among the fortresses of Al Massissah." (Yak., iii. 756 ; Mar.,
ii. 293.)
'AiN JALIJT (GOLIATH'S SPRING). "A small and pleasant town,
lying between Nabulus and Baisan, in the Filastin Province. The
place was taken by the Rumi (Crusaders), and retaken by Saladin
in 579 (1183)." (Yak., iii. 760 ; Mar., ii. 295.)
'AiN AL JARR. "This place lies between Ba'albakk and
Damascus, in the Bika'ah (or Plain of Coelo-Syria). It is a well-
known spot ; and tradition relates that Noah at this place entered
the ark." (Yak., iii. 760; Mar., ii. 295.)
" There are here," writes Abu-1 Fida, " ruins of enormous stone
buildings. It lies a long mile south of Ba'albakk. At 'Ain al
Jarr begins the great river that flows through the Bika'ah (of
Ccelo-Syria), called the Litany." (A. F., 230.)
'Ain al Jarr is at the present day called Anjar. Near it lie the
ruins of the ancient Chalcis ad Belum.
'Ain al Jarr to Al Kar'un (Muk.), i march ; to Ba'albakk
(Muk.), i march.
'AiN SALIM, OR 'AiN SAILAM. "A place 3 miles from Halab
(Aleppo)." (Yak., iii. 762 ; Mar., ii. 296.)
'AiN AS SALLR. " Sail fir? writes Yakut, " is the fish also
called Aljirriy in the Syrian dialect. The place is near Antakiy-
yah (Antioch), and the Sallur is the largest of the fish found in
the spring, which is so called from the number of these fish found
there. 'Ain as Sallur, and the lake near it, belonged to Maslamah,
the son of the Khalif 'Abd al Malik. The lake is also called
Buhairah Yaghra." (Yak., iii. 762 ; Mar., ii. 296.)
'AiN TAB. "A fortified castle," says Yakut, "lying between
Antakiyyah and Halab, with villages round it, among which is
Duluk. It was formerly itself called Duluk, which is now one of
'A IN TAB. 'A IN Z ARE AH. 387
its dependencies. 'Ain Tab belongs to Halah." (Yak., iii. 759 ;
Mar., ii. 294.)
"'Ain Tab," Dimashki writes in the early part of the fourteenth
century, "lies north-east of Halab. It is a place with a strong
castle. The people are Turkomans. There is a small river here,
and gardens." (Dim., 205.)
" 'Ain Tab, in Kinnasrin," according to Abu-1 Fida, " is a very
beautiful town, with a castle that is built on the solid rock. It
has water in plenty, and gardens, and is the capital of its district.
There are fine markets here, much frequented by merchants and
travellers. It lies three marches north of Halab. Duluk lies
near 'Ain Tab, and is now in ruins. The place is mentioned in
the wars of Saladin and Nur ad Din. 'Ain Tab is three marches
south of Kala'at ar Rum, and the same distance south-east of
Bahasna." (A. F., 269.)
'AiN THARMA. "A village in the Ghautah (district) of
Damascus." (Yak., iii. 759 ; Mar., ii. 294.) The latter writes
the name 'Ain Tuma.
'AINUN. "A village near (and south of) Jerusalem." (Yak.,
iii. 764 ; Mar., ii. 298.)
Also called Bait 'Ainun. (See below.) The 'Ainuni raisins,
which come from here, are celebrated, according to Mukaddasi.
(Muk., 180.)
'AiNt>N OR 'AiN UNA. "This is a village south of the
Bathaniyyah Province, and lying on the shore of the Red Sea,
between Madyan and As Sala. The pilgrim road from Egypt to
Makkah passes through it." (Yak., iii. 758, 765 )
The ancient OJKTJ, the harbour of Midian mentioned by
Ptolemy.
'AiN ZARBAH (ANAZARBUS, OF THE CRUSADES). Biladhuri
states that the town was built by Ar Rashid, being also refortified
and garrisoned, in the year 180 (796), by troops from Khurasan.
(Bil., 171 ; copeJ by I. F., 113 ; and in Yak., iii. 761.)
" The town," says Istakhri, " lies in a country very like the
Ghaur (or Jordan lowland). There are palm-trees and fruits of
all kinds, and great fertility ; also arable fields and pasture lands.
252
388 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
The city has fine walls, and its prosperity is great." (Is., 63;
I. H., 121 ; copied by Id., 24, and A. F., 234.)
Yakut in the thirteenth century speaks of it as a town of the
Thughur (or Frontier Fortresses), belonging to Al Massissah.
"It was rebuilt by Abu Sulaiman at Turki al Khadiin, about the
year 190 (804), when he was governor of the Thughur, under the
Khalif Ar Rashid. After that the Rumis (Crusaders) took the
place and laid it in ruins. Saif ad Daulah ibn Hamdan spent
three million Dirhams on rebuilding it, but the Rumis retook it
(A.D. 962) in his day, and it is still in their hands. It is now
peopled by Armenians." (Yak., iii. 761 ; Mar., ii. 295.)
" 'Ain Zarbah," says Abu-1 Fida, " is a town at the foot of a hill
which is crowned by a castle. The town is populous, and is
watered by a river. It lies between Sis and Tall Hamdun, and
to the north of the Jaihan (river Pyramus), which flows between
it and Tall Hamdun. 'Ain Zarbah lies south, and rather west of
Sis, and at a short day's march from it. The people have cor-
rupted the name, and call it Nawarza. Muhallabi says that
between Sis and 'Ain Zarbah is 24 miles, which is the exact
distance between Sis and Nawarza, proving that 'Ain Zarbah is
identical with Nawarza." (A. F., 251.)
'Ain Zarbah to Massissah (Is., I. H., Id.), i march; to
Antakiyyah (Id.), 2 marches.
'AITHAH. " A district of Syria." (Yak., iii. 750 ; Mar., ii. 291 .)
'AjAB. "A place in Syria, mentioned by the poets." (Yak.,
iii. 617 ; Mar., ii. 238.)
AJAM. " A place in Syria near Al Faradis, in the neighbour-
hood of Halab." (Yak., i. 135 ; Mar., i. 27.)
'AJLN. " In the Iklim (or district of) Jarash," says Dimashki,
" is the town of 'Ajlun, where there is a very strong fortress. In
the town is running water ; fruits of all kinds and provisions are
here in plenty. The fortress is very high placed, and you can see
it from four days' march away." (Dim., 200.)
The fortress is at the present day called Kala'at ar Rubad the
Castle of the Suburb it is a conspicuous landmark in all the
south Jordan district.
" 'Ajlun," writes Abu-1 Fida in the fourteenth century, " is the
'AJLUN.'AKIR. 389
name of the fortress, and its suburb (that is the town of 'Ajlun),
is called Al Ba'uthah, which is distant from it about a horse-
gallop. It lies to the east of the Ghaur (or Jordan Valley),
opposite Baisan. The fortress of 'Ajlfin is a celebrated and very
strong place. It can be seen from Baisan. The town has
gardens and running water. It lies east of Baisan, and has been
recently rebuilt by 'Izz ad Din Usamah, one of Saladin's Amirs."
(A. F., 245.)
The place was visited by Ibn Batutah in 1355, who speaks of it
as ''A fine town with good markets, and a strong castle. A
stream runs through the town, and the waters are sweet and good."
(I. B, i. 129.)
AJNADAIN. " The site of the famous battle-field of the year
13 A.H. (634). It took place near Ar Ramlah, in Filastin, and
in the Kurah (or district of) Bait jabrin." (Yak., i. 136; Mar.,
i. 27.)
The actual site of this famous battle between the Greeks and
the first Muslim conquerors has never been identified.
'AKABAT AN NISA. (THE WOMAN'S PASS). " Near Baghras on
the road to Al Massissah, so called from an accident that happened
here to one of the wives of Maslamah the son of the Khalif 'Abd
al Malik, during his expedition against 'Amuriyyah (Amorium).
The woman fell over the precipice." (Yak., iii. 692.)
'AKABAT AR RUMAN, OR AR RUMAD!. "A Pass between
Ba'albakk and Damascus." (Yb., 112.)
'AKABAT AS SiR. " A Pass in the district near Al Hadath, in
the Thughur (or Frontier Fortresses). It is a narrow and long
Pass." (Yak., iii. 692 ; Mar., ii., 265.) The latter spells the
name Ash Shir.
AL AKHRAJIYYAH. " A place in Syria, mentioned by the poet
Jarir." (Yak., i. 161 ; Mar., i. 34.)
AL AKHUWANAH. "A place in the Jordan Province, on the
shore of the Lake of Tiberias." (Yak., i. 334; Mar., i. 83.)
'AKIR (EKRON). "A large village," says Mukaddasi, "possess-
ing a fine Mosque. Its inhabitants are much given to good
works. The bread here is not to be surpassed for quality. The
village lies on the road (from Ar Ramlah) to Makkah." (Muk.,
390 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
176.) Yakut calls it Al 'Akir, adding that it belongs to Ar
Ramlah. (Yak., iii. 697 ; Mar., ii. 267.)
HISN 'AKKAR. "An impregnable fortress, built since the dajs
of Islam. There is a channel of water coming right into the
castle, brought down from the hills above, and sufficient both for
domestic purposes and for drinking." (Dim., 208.) The district
of Jabal 'Akkar lies immediately north of Tripoli.
AL AKLIM. "A district in the neighbourhood -of Damascus."
(Yak, i. 339; Mar, i. 84.)
AKMINAS. "A large village of the Halab Province. It lies in
the Jabal As Summak. Its inhabitants are Ismailians." (Yak,
i. 339 ; Mar, i. 83.)
'AKRABA. "The name of a town in the Jaulan Province of
Damascus. The (ancient) Ghassanide kings dwelt here of old."
(Yak, iii. 695; Mar, ii. 267.)
HISN AL AKRAD (THE FORT OF THE KURDS ; CRAC DES CHEVA-
LIERS). Noticed by the traveller Ibn Jubair (i 185). " It lies in
the Lebanon Mountains, and is now in the hands of the Franks."
a- J-, 2 S7 .)
" Hisn al Akrad," says Dimashki, " is an impregnable fortress
set on the dividing line between (the province of) Damascus and
the coast (district). From it one can see Damascus, Kara, An
Nabk, and Ba'albakk ; and down even to the sea-coast." (Dim,
208.) Abu-1 Fida, some years later, speaks of it as "A strong
fortress on the mountains opposite, and west of Hims, which are
part of the (Lebanon called) Jabal Jalil. It lies between Hims
and TarabuluSj a march from either. The fortress has suburbs.
Before Tarabulus was taken by the Muslims (in mo), this was
the seat of their Government." (A. F, 259.)
Hisn al Akrad took its name from the fact that for many years
its garrison was composed of Kurdish troops. It is also known
as Kala'at al Hisn the Castle of the Fortress and in Crusading
times was called Crac des Chevaliers. Ibn Batutah visited the
place in 1355. He speaks of it as "A small town, with many
trees and streams, standing on the summit of a hill." (I. B,
i. 140.)
AKSAL. "A village of the Jordan Province, lying 5 leagues
AKSAL. 'AMMAN. 391
from Tiberias towards Ar Ramlah. The river Abu Futrus is in
its neighbourhood." (Yak., i. 342.) According to the Marasid
(Mar., i. 85) the name is spelt Aksak.
AL AKWAKH. "A district of Baniyas in the Damascus
Province." (Yak., i. 343 ; Mar., i. 86.)
'AL'AL. "A high mountain. It lies in the Bathaniyyah
Province, between the Ghaur (of the Jordan) and Jabal ash
Sharah." (Yak., iii. 712.) The Marasid (Mar., ii. 274) says it is
situated above As Sal', and between Al 'Ukad and the Jabal ash
Sharah. This 'Al'al may possibly be the Biblical Elealeh (Num.
xxxii. 3), at the place now called Khirbat al 'Al, south of 'Amman.
'AuKiN. "A village outside Damascus." (Mar., ii. 228.)
AL 'ALLAH. " A large Kurah (or district) of Ma'arrah an
Nu'man, lying between Halab and Hamah, towards the desert ;
it contains many villages." (Yak., iii. 710; Mar., ii. 273.)
AL 'ALLATAN. "A Kurah (or district) of Hims in Syria."
(Yak., iii. 709 : Mar , ii. 273.)
ALtis. "Abu Sa'ad says Alus is a town on the coast near
Tarsus ; but this is probably an error on his part." (Yak., i. 352 ;
Mar., i. 88.)
AMARR. "A place in the Syrian Desert, on the road to the
Hijjaz. It lies north of the road to Busaitah." (Yak., i. 361 ;
Mar., i. 91.)
AL 'AMK, OR AL ? UMK (THE DEPRESSION). "A Kurah (or
district) of Halab, near Dabik. It belonged originally to Antakiy-
yah, and most of the provisions of Antioch come from thence."
(Yak., iii. 727; Mar., ii. 280.) In Crusading times this was
known as the Plain of Antioch.
Ibn Batutah, who crossed the district in 1355, describes it as
"lying equidistant from Antioch, Tizin, and Baghras. The
Turkomans dwell here with the Franks." (I. B., i. 165.) The
name sometimes occurs in the plural form Al A'mdk. (Yak.,
i. 316; Mar., i. 77.)
'AMMAN (RABATH AMMON, PHILADELPHIA). "The capital of
the Balka Province (Penea)." (Yb., 113.) Mukaddasi, in 985,
writes : " Amman, lying on the border of the desert, has round
it many villages and cornfields. The Balka District, of which it
392 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
is the capital, is rich in grain and flocks ; it also has many streams,
the waters of which work the mills. In the city near the market-
place stands a fine mosque, the court of which is ornamented
with mosaic. We have heard said that it resembles that of
Makkah. The Castle of Goliath is on the hill overhanging the
city, and therein is the Tomb of Uriah, * over which is built a
mosque. Here, likewise, is the Circus of Solomon. Living here
is cheap, and fruit is plentiful. On the other hand, the people ot
the place 'are illiterate, and the roads thither wretched. But the
city is even as, a harbour of the desert, and a place of refuge for
the Badawin Arabs." (Muk., 175 ; quoted also by Yak., iii. 760.)
The Tomb of Uriah and the Castle of Goliath are, doubtless,
the small mosque within the citadel, overhanging the town on the
north. The Circus of Solomon is the ancient theatre, capable, it
is said, of having seated six thousand spectators.
Yakut (Yak., iii. 719 ; Mar., ii. 278) alludes to 'Amman as' the
city of Dakiyanus (Decius), the Emperor under whose reign the
Seven Sleepers entered the Cave of Ar Rakim (see p. 274).
Yakut further adds the following legendary version of the Biblical
account of Lot's escape from Sodom and Gomorrha :
"It is mentioned by a certain learned man of the Jews, that he
read in one of the books of God, that when Lot fled with his
family from Sadum and its people, his wife turned back, and was
changed into a pillar of salt. But he went on to Zugharf (Zoar),
and none were saved but he and his brother and his two
daughters. Now, the two daughters imagined to themselves that
Allah had destroyed all the world, and they took counsel how the
seed of their father and their uncle should continue. And they
made them both drunk with wine, and they each did lie with one
of them, and both did conceive. And the two men knew nothing
of what had taken place. Then one bare a son, and called his
name 'Amman' that is to say, He who is of the Uncle ('Amm) ;
and the other also bare a son, and called him Maab that is, fie
who is of the Father (Ab). When the two boys had grown to
* The history of Uriah, according to the Muslim tradition, is given in
G. Weil's Biblische Legenden der Mtiselmiinner, p. 210.
t In the text by mistake written Znfar.
'AMMAN. 'AM WAS. 393
man's estate, each founded a city in Syria, and called it after his
own name. And these two cities ('Amman and Maab) are near
to one another in the Syrian waste."
Abu-1 Fida, in 1321, writes of 'Amman as follows :
" It is a very ancient town, and was ruined before the days of
Islam. It is mentioned in the history of the Israelites. There
are great ruins here, and the river Az Zarka (Jabbok) flows
through them, which (later on) crosses the Pilgrim Road from
Damascus (to Makkah). The town is to the west of the Zarka,
and lies about a march to the north of the Birkat Ziza. At
'Amman are many great Butm (Terebinth) and other trees. All
around it are fields, and the soil is very fertile. According to
tradition, it was Lot who founded 'Amman." (A. F., 247.)
'Amman to the river Jordan (Muk.), i march ; to Bait ar Ram
(Muk.), i march ; to Maab (Muk.), i march : to Az Zarika
(Muk.), i march; to Jerusalem (Id.), 2 days.
'A.MMtiRiYYAH.* "A small town on the bank of the 'Asi
(Orontes), between Afamiyyah and Shaizar. There are remains
and ruins here, and also mills." (Yak., iii. 731 : Mar., ii. 282.)
'AMTA. "A town in the Jordan Province, and of the Ghaur
(or lowland). There is here the tomb of (the conqueror of
Syria) Abu 'Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah, though others say it is at
Tabariyyah. From 'Amman to 'Amta, which is in the middle of
the Ghaur, is 12 leagues, and the same thence on to Tabariyyah.
They make here excellent arrows." (Yak., .iii. 722 ; Mar., ii. 278.)
'AMIJS. "A small town near Bait Lahm (Bethlehem), belong-
ing to Jerusalem." (Yak., iii. 594 ; Mar., ii. 228.)
'AMWAS (EMMAUS NICOPOLIS). "A town in Palestine." (Yb..
116.)
Mukaddasi says of 'Amwas : " It is said that this place was in
ancient days the capital of the province, but that the population
removed therefrom to be nearer to the sea, and more in the
plain, on account of the wells : for the village lies on the skirt of
the hill-country." (Muk., 176.)
Yakut speaks of the city as situated " in the Kurah (province)
of Filastin, near Jerusalem. 'Amwas \\as the capital of Filastin
* Spelt the same as 'Ammuriyyah, or 'Amuriyyah, the Arabic form of
Amorium in Phrygia.
394 PALESTINE VNDER THE MOSLEMS.
anciently, but the capital was removed thence to (Ar Ramlah)
nearer the sea-coast, because of the lack of wells ; for 'Amwas is
on the mountain-side. It lies 6 miles from Ar Ramlah, on the
road to Jerusalem. The plague of 'Amwas took its origin here
in 'Omar's time, in the year 18 ; and they say twenty-five thousand
died of it." (Yak., iii. 729; Mar., ii. 281.)
'ANADHAN. According to Yakut, "a village near Kinnasrin,
in the Kurah (district) of Urtik, of the 'Awasim Province." Ac-
cording to another account (Marasid), it lies to the north-east of
Halab. (Yak., iii. 733; v. 25; Mar., ii. 283.)
HISN ANAF AL HAJAR (FORT OF THE STONE-NOSE). "A
fortress on the sea. Thence to Hisn Bathrun is 5 miles, and to
Atrabulus 8 miles." (Id., 17.)
ANAFAH. " A small town of the Syrian coast, to the east of
Jubail and of Jabal Sahyun, and 8 leagues from the latter."
(Yak., i. 390; Mar., i. 98.)
'ANAH. "A town of the Jordan Province." (Yak., iii. 595 ;
Mar., ii. 229.)
A'NAK. "A small town of the Hauran, in the Damascus
Province. They make here carpets and excellent clothes, which
take their name from this place." (Yak., i. 316 ; Mar., i. 77.)
AL ANDARIN. "A village," says Yakut in 1225, "that existed
formerly to the south of Halab, a day's ride on horseback away
on the edge of the desert. There are no habitations beyond it.
It is now in ruins." (Yak., i. 373 ; Mar., i. 96.)
ANTARTUS, OR ANTARSUS (ANTARADUS, TORTOSA, CALLED AT
THE PRESENT DAY TARTUS). "A town on the coast of the Hims
Province." (Yb., 112.)
Istakhri and Ibn Haukal, writing in the tenth century, report :
" Antarsus (or Antartus) is a fortress on the sea ; it is the frontier
city of Hims. The Khalif 'Othman's Kuran is preserved here.
The city possesses stone walls, which preserve it from being taken
by surprise ; and so it escaped in our own days when the Greek
Emperor Nikfur (Nicephorus in A.D. 966 and 968) ravaged the
coast of Syria." (Is., 61 ; I. H., 116.)
" Antarsus," says Idrisi, " is a small town on the seaside with
thronged bazaars ; much merchandise is seen there. The town
ANTARTUS, OR ANTARSUS. ARANDAL. 395
is at the end of a great bay, and above it is a range of mountains.
This bay measures some 10 miles across. The city has a wall,
and is very strongly fortified." (Id., 20, 22.)
11 Antartus (according to Yakut) is the last of the coast towns of
the Damascus Province. It belonged originally to Hims, and by
some is said to belong to Tarabulus. It lies east of 'Arkah, and
8 leagues from it. It possesses two towers that are like castles.
It was originally conquered by 'Ubaidah ibn As Samit, in A.H. 17
(638), after the taking of Al Ladhikiyyah and Jabalah. It was
then demolished, and the place remained uninhabited for some
years, till the Khalif Mu'awiyyah rebuilt it and fortified it, as he
also did Marakiyyah and Bulunyas." (Yak., i. 388 ; Mar., i. 98.)
Dimashki, writing in 1300, says: "In Antarsus is a church
belonging to the Christians, magnificently built. There is here a
chapel (bait) which is said to have been the first house built in
the name of (the Virgin) Mary in Syria. The Khalif Mu'awiyah
rebuilt and enlarged the city, making it his capital during the days
of the Khalif 'Othman. He also conquered the Islands of the
Mediterranean, and made raids on Cyprus and Sicily, and he took
the Island of Arwad. (See p. 399.) Antarsus was an ancient
Roman fortress." (Dim., 208.)
Abu-1 Fida, writing a few years later, adds nothing to the above
accounts, which he copies. (A. F., 229.)
'ARABAH. " A place in the Filastin Province." (Yak., iii. 633 ;
Mar., ii. 246.)
'ARABAYA. "A place which Bukhtnassar (Nebuchadnezzar)
attacked with his army." (Yak., iii. 633.) According to the
Marasid (Mar., ii. 245) it lies in Syria.
ARAK, OR URAK. "A small town on the border of the Halab
Desert, near Tadmur (Palmyra) and ; Urd, possessing palms and
olives. It was conquered by Khalid ibn al Walid." (Yak., i. 210 ;
Mar., i. 48.)
'ARANDAL. " The capital of the district of Al Jibal (Gebalene)."
(Yb., 114.)
This is the ancient episcopal city of Arindela, which after the
Arab conquest fell to ruin. It is at present called Gharendel,
and lies on the Roman road going north from Shaubak or Mont-
Royal.
396 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
In the thirteenth century, when Yakut wrote, it was only a
village, in the Sharah Province. It was taken by the Muslims in
'Omar's days, after the battle of the Yarmuk. (Yak., iii. 657 ;
Mar., ii. 251.)
ARAR. " A place in the neighbourhood of Halab. It is the
name of a Wadi mentioned in the histories of the Muslim con-
quest." (Yak., i. 181 ; Mar., i. 40.)
'ARBASUS. "A frontier fortress near Al Massissah. It was
ruined by Saif ad Daulah ibn Hamdan." (Yak., iii. 633 ; Mar.,
ii. 246.)
ARBIKH. " A place lying to the west of Halab." (Yak., i. 190 ;
Mar., i. 42.)
ARFAD. " A large village in the neighbourhood of the 'Azaz
District near Halab." (Yak., i. 209 ; Mar., i. 47.)
ARIHA, OR RIHA (JERICHO). " The capital of the Ghaur (or
lowland of the Jordan), being, however, counted as in the Balka
Province.'' (Yb., 113.)
" Ariha," writes Mukaddasi, " is the City of the Giants (men-
tioned in the Kuran), and therein is seen the gate of which Allah
spake to the Children of Israel (Kuran v. 25). There grows in
these parts much indigo and many palms, and the city possesses
illages in the Ghaur (of the Jordan), whose fields are watered
from the springs. The heat in Jericho is excessive. Snakes and
scorpions are numerous ; also fleas abound. The serpents called
Tariyakiyyah come from hence, from the flesh of which, used
therein, depends the excellence of the Tariyak (Theriack or Anti-
dote) of Jerusalem. The people are brown-skinned and swarthy.
On the other hand, the water of Jericho is held to be the lightest
and best in all Islam. Bananas are plentiful, also dates and
flowers of fragrant odour." (Muk., 175.) On the subject of the
Theriack see above, p. 17.
'Ali of Herat says that "at Riha is the Tomb of Moses."
(Oxford MS., folio 26.)
" Riha," says Yakut, "lies 5 leagues, or a day's ride, from
Jerusalem, in the Ghaur of the Jordan Province. It is called
Ariha also, and is the City of the Giants (mentioned in the
Kuran). It has many palm-trees, also sugar-canes in quantities,
ARIHA, OR RIHA (JERICHO). ARKAH, OR 'IRKAH. 397
and bananas. The best of all the sugar of the Ghaur land is
made here. The city is named after Ariha ibn Malik ibn
Arfakshad ibn Sam (Shem) ibn Nuh (Noah)." (Yak., i. 227
ii. 884 ; Mar., i. 52, 496.)
"Ariha, or Riha,' 1 writes Abu-1 Fida, "is a village of the Ghaur,
and is * the Village of the Giants ' mentioned in the Books
of the Jews. It was the first place conquered by Joshua.
It lies 4 miles west of the Jordan, at the place where the
Christians say the Messiah was baptized. Near here there are
some mines of sulphur, the only ones in Palestine. Near Jericho
they grow the plant called ' Wasmah,' from which they obtain the
Nil (or indigo). Jericho lies 12 miles east of [erusalem." (A. F.,
236.)
On the elision of the Y in Hebrew names that have gone over
into Arabic see Clermont-Ganneau, Journal Asiatiquc, 1877,
i. 498. Other instances given are: Hebrew Yezreel (Jezreel),
modern Zarin ; Hebrew Yesimoth (in Beth Jesimoth), modern
Sueimeh, and thus Yericho (Jericho) becomes the Arab Ariha, or
Riha.
Jericho to Jerusalem (Is., I. H.), i march, or (Muk., Id.) 2
stages; to Zughar (Is., I. H., Id.), 2 days, or (other MSS.) i
day; to Ar Ramlah (Muk.), i march; to Nabulus (Muk.), i
march ; to Bait ar Ram (Muk.), 2 stages.
AL 'ARISH (RHINOCOLURA). "A city that originally had two
Mosques," says Idrisi in 1154, "but the sand has invaded them,
and all the land round about. There are here many vegetable
gardens, and fine fruits are grown. The town lies close to the
sea." (Id, 4.)
"ArArish," says Yakut, "is the first town in Egypt on the
Syrian side. It has been pillaged by the Franks, and nothing
remains but some ruins in the midst of the sands." (Yak., iii.
660; Mar., ii. 253.)
'ARjAMtis. " A village in the Bika'ah (Ccelo-Syria), near Ba'al-
bakk. They say there is here the Tomb of Hablah the daughter
of Noah." (Yak., iii. 637 ; Mar., ii. 246.)
'ARKAH, OR '!RKAH (ARCA, OR ARCADOS). "A district of
the Damascus Province on the sea-coast. There is here an ancient
39S PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
city, inhabited by a population brought hither from Persia."
(Yb., 114.)
'"Arkah," says Mukaddasi, " is a place lying some way from the
sea." (Muk., 160.)
The Persian traveller Nasir visited 'Arkah, and writes that in
his day (1047) tne city stood 2 leagues from the sea. (N.
Kh., 6.)
A few years later Idrisi reports of 'Arkah, that it is " a fine and
populous city lying at the foot of the hills, which are here not
very high. In the midst of the town is a castle on a height ; and
there is a large suburb. The place is very populous, and full of
merchandise. Its people are rich. The drinking-water comes by
an aqueduct that takes its origin from the river, which never runs
dry, flowing close to the city. There are many gardens with fruit-
trees and sugar-canes, and there are mills on the river afore-
mentioned. The town lies 3 miles from the sea-coast. Its fort is
large, the food of the people is abundant and cheap. The houses
are built of mortar and clay, and most of them are large.''
(Id., 13.)
" 'Arkah," says Abu-1 Fida, " is a small town, possessing a
small castle ; it has gardens, and a small river. Muhallabi, the
geographer, counts it as of the dependencies of Damascus, being
the furthest north of these along the coast. 'Arkah lies 12 miles
south of Tarabulus. From 'Arkah, going east to Ba'albakk, is 66
miles. The town lies about a league from the sea-coast." (A. F.,
255.)
Yakut pronounces the name ; Irkah, and states that the town
lies 4 leagues east of Tarabulus on the flank of a hill about i mile
from the sea. " On this hill is a castle. Abu Bakr Al Hamadani
counts it as belonging to the 'Awasim Province. It lies between
Rafaniyyah and Tarabulus. It is the furthest (town north) in the
Damascus Province. It was ruined and plundered by Saif ad
Daulah." (Yak., iii. 653 ; Mar., ii. 250.)
'Arkah, or 'Irkah, is the ancient Phoenician city of the Arkites
mentioned in Genesis x. 17. In Crusading Chronicles it is called
Area, Arcados, or Archis. In Byzantine times the place was
known as Csesarea of the Lebanon.
ARM AN A Z. ARWAD. 399
ARMANAZ. "An ancient and small town, distant from Halab
about 5 leagues. They make here pots and drinking-vessels, red
in colour, and very sweet to smell. Armanaz, they say, is also
the name of another town, near Sur (Tyre), on the Syrian coast."
(Yak., i. 217; Mar., i. 49.)
'ARRABAH. " A place in the province of 'Akkah (Acre), on the
Syrian coast." (Yak., iii. 627 ; Mar., ii. 244.)
ARSHiN, OR ARAJIN AL KUSR (ARSHIX OF THE CASTLES).
" A village in the district of Halab (Aleppo), belonging to Al
Jazr." (Yak., iii. 640; Mar., ii. 247.)
ARSF (APOLLONIA). "Arsuf," says Mukaddasi, "is smaller
than Yafah, but is strongly fortified and populous. There is here
a beautiful pulpit, made in the first instance for the Mosque of
Ar Ramlah, but which being found too small, was given to
Arsuf." (Muk., 174.)
"Arsuf, or Ursuf," Yakut writes in 1225, "remained in
Muslim hands till taken by Kund Furi (Godfrey de Bouillon)
lord of Jerusalem, in the year 494 (noi), and it is in the hands
of the Franks at the present day. It lies between Caesarea and
Jaffa" (Yak., i. 207 ; v. 12 ; Mar., i. 46.)
Abu-1 Fida in 1321 writes that "Arsuf, in Filastin, was a
populous town, having a castle. It lies on the coast of the Greek
Sea, 12 miles from Ar Ramlah, 6 miles from Yafa, and 18 from
Kaisariyyah. It has a market, and was surrounded by a wall ;
but at the present day the town is in ruins, and there are no
inhabitants." (A. F., 239.) Arsuf is the Apollonia of the Greeks,
which the Crusaders mistook for Antipatris
Arsuf to Ar Ramlah (Muk.), i march; to Kaisariyyah (Muk.),
i march.
ARTAH. "An impregnable fortress in the district of Halab
(Aleppo). It belonged to the 'Awasim Province, and many
learned men were natives of it." (Yak., i. 190 ; Mar., i. 42.)
ARWAD (RUAD, ARADUS) " The Island of Arwad," writes
Idrisi in 1154, " is in the sea, near Antarsus. On this island is a
magnificent church, finely and solidly built, very high and im-
pregnable, having doors of iron ; so that it is like a guard-
house."
400 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
On the margin of the Oxford MS. of Idrisi (Cod. Bibl. Bod.,
No. 887), written at the" end of the fifteenth century, is the follow-
ing note : " The city of Arwad lies on an island opposite the
town of Marakiyyah, which stands on the. sea-shore, and between
Marakiyyah and the island is about two bow-shots. This island
was taken from out of the hands of the Franks, in the days of
(the Mamluk Sultan) An Nasir ibn Kala'un. At the present day
there are no inhabitants, and it is the same as regards the city of
Marakiyyah, the people of which have removed to the mountain
for fear of the Frankish soldiers. The place is empty and
deserted, though the houses and other buildings are still standing
down to the present time, as likewise the sugar presses, which are
built outside the town towards the east." (Id. 20.)
ARZI)NA. "One of the villages of Damascus." (Yak., i. 206 ;
Mar., i. 46.)
AsrfRAH. "A village of Halab (Aleppo)." (Yak., i. 251 ;
Mar., i. 61.)
ASF^NA. " The name of a fortress which existed near Ma'arrah
an Nu'man, in Syria. It was taken and dismantled by Muhammad
ibn Nasr ibn Salih ibn Mirdas al Kilabi." (Yak., i. 249 ; Mar.,
i. 60.)
ASHMUNITH. " The name of a spring outside Halab (Aleppo),
and to the south. It waters the gardens of the city, and its over-
flow goes into the river Kuwaik." (Yak., i. 283 ; Mar., i. 69.)
'ASHTARA ('ASHTAROTH OF EDREi). A place in the Hauran,
belonging to the Damascus Province." (Yak., iii. 679; Mar.,
ii. 259.)
This represents the Biblical Ashtaroth of Deut. i. 4, etc.
'ASKALAN (ASCALON).* -" In Ibn Zubair's day," said Bilad-
huri, " the Greeks raided and destroyed 'Askalan and its Mosque.
The Khalif 'Abd al Malik rebuilt the city, fortified it, and rebuilt
the Mosque also." (Bil., 143.)
The city is mentioned by Yakubi as "a town of Palestine on the
sea coast. (Yb., 117.)
The Mosque built, or rebuilt, by 'Abd al Malik, was subsequently
* Spelt in Arabic with the (guttural) initial 'Ain. In Hebrew Ashkalon
is with an initial Aleph. See above p. 381.
'ASK A LAN. 401
restored by the Abbaside Khalif Al Mahdi, in 772 (155 A.H.), three
years befoiv he mounted the throne on the death of his father Al
Mansfir. The inscription set up by Al Mahdi has been discovered
by M. Clermont-Ganneau. As given in \\\Q Journal Asiatique for
1887, vol. ix., p. 485, it may be translated as follows :
" Al Mahdi) the Commander of the Faithful, hath ordered the
building of this minaret and of this mosque, at the hands of Al
Mufartdal ibn Sallam, and Jahur ibn Hisham, in the month of
Muharram, in the year 155."
Mukaddasi, writing in 985, says : " 'Askalan on the sea is a fine
city, and strongly garrisoned. Fruit is here in plenty, especially
that of the sycamore tree, of which all p.re free to eat. The great
mosque stands in the market of the clothes-merchants, and is
paved throughout with marble. The city is spacious, opulent,
healthy, and well fortified. The silkworms of this place are re-
nowned, its wares are excellent, and life there is pleasant. Also,
its markets are thronged, and its garrison alert. Only its harbour
is unsafe, its waters brackish, and the sand- fly, called Dalam, is
most hurtful." (Muk., 174.) The Dalam sand-fly, be it noted, is
still a well-known pest of the coast country of Syria.
The Persian traveller, Nasir, visited Ascalon in 1047. He
writes : "The bazaar and the mosque are both fine, and I saw
here an arch, which they told me was ancient, and had been part
of a mosque. The arch was built of such mighty stones, that
should any desire to throw it down, he would spend much money
before he could accomplish it." (N. Kh., 61.)
In 1 1 oo Ascalon fell into the hands of the Crusaders, but was
afterwards re-taken by the Fatimites. In 1154 Idrisi writes :
" 'Askalan is a fine town, with a double wall, and there are
markets. Without the town there are no gardens, and nought is
there in the way of trees. The Governor of the Holy City,* with
a Greek army of the Franks and others, conquered it in the year
548 (1153), and at the present day it is in their hands. 'Askalan
is counted as included in the Filastin Province. 'Askalan, Arsuf,
and Yafa, are all towns of the coast of Palestine. The three are
of about the same size and note, being well fortified and very
* King Baldwin III.
26
402 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
populous. Olives and vines are grown here in plenty." (Id.,
5 and u.)
'Ali of Herat notes that " between Bait Jibrin and ' Askalan is
the Valley of the Ant, where, according to tradition, Solomon
spoke with these insects." (See Kuran xxvii. 17, 18.) '"Askalan,"
he continues, " is a fine and beautiful city. There is near here
the Well of Abraham, which they say he dug with his own hand ; but
of the truth of this Allah knows best." (A. H. Oxf. MS., folio 46.)
'"Askalan," writes Yakut, "was conquered by the Franks in
548 (1153), and reconquered in 583 (1187) by Saladin, after 35
years had elapsed." According to the same authority, 'Askalan
means Aid ar Ads, ' the Summit of the Head,' that is, the Summit
of Syria. " The city is also named 'Arus ash >/idw, the Bride of
Syria." (Yak., iii. 673 ; Mar., ii. 258.)
Richard of Cornwall, King Richard Cceur de Lion's nephew,
attempted in 1240 to restore the walls of Ascalon, but failed, and
Sultan Baibars dismantled the city in 1270, since which period it
has remained in ruins.
Abu-1 Fida in the fourteenth century writes : " 'Askalan, in
Filastin, is a town where there are ancient remains. It lies on the
sea coast. Between it and Ghazzah the distance is about three
leagues. It is one of the fortresses of Islam in Syria. Muhallabi
says 'Askalan stands by the sea-shore on an elevation, and is one
of the finest of the coast towns. It has no harbour. Its inhabi-
tants drink well-water, which is sweet (not brackish). Between it
and Ghazzah the distance is 10 miles, and between it and Ar
Ramlah 18 miles. At the present day it is in ruins, and there are
no inhabitants." (A. F., 231.)
The dismantled city was visited by the traveller Ibn Batutah in
I 355) wno speaks of it as " a total ruin, though formerly a beautiful
place. The head of Husain (the grandson of the Prophet),
which was here, is now in Cairo. It used to be kept in the beauti-
ful mosque at 'Askalan, built by one of the Fatimite Khalifs, as
the inscription over the gate still shows. To the south of this
building is a large mosque, called the Mosque of 'Omar, of which
nothing now remains but its walls ; in it are many fine marble
columns, some standing and some fallen down. To the south of
ASKAK AZ ZAITUN.'ATHLITH. 403
'Askalan are the Wells of Abraham. You descend to them by
broad steps leading to a chamber. On all four sides of this
chamber are springs of water gushing out from stone conduits.
The water is sweet, but is not very abundant. The people tell
many stories about these springs. Outside 'Askalan is the Wadi
of the Ant." (I. B., i. 126.)
'Askalan to Ar Ramlah (Is., I. H., Muk., Id.), i march; to
Gha/./.ah (Is., I. H.), less than T march, or (Id.) 20 miles ; to
Yafa (Muk.), i march ; to Rafh (Muk.), i march ; to Mimas,
going west (Id.), 20 miles.
'ASKAR AZ ZAITUN. "A place in the neighbourhood of
Nabulus, in the Filastin Province." (Yak., iii. 675 ; Mar., ii. 258.)
'ASSAN. " A village lying about a league from Halab (Aleppo).
It has a mosque." (Yak., iii. 671 ; Mar., ii. 257.)
WADI AL ASTIL. "We traversed this," writes Ibn Jubair, "on
the road between Hitnin and Tibnin. It is a valley clothed with
trees, the greater number of which were of the kind called Rand
(laurels or myrtles). This wadi is very deep, and is like a fosse.
It is called Al Astil, and no army could traverse it by force. It is
very wonderful to see. Thence we marched, bearing to our left,
and reached Tibnin (Le Toron)." (I. J., 304.)
'ATHAM. "A place in Syria mentioned by the poets." (Yak.,
iii. 686 ; Mar., ii. 263.)
AL ATHARIB (CEREP OF THE CRUSADES). "A celebrated
castle about three leagues from Halab (Aleppo), and between it
and Antioch. The name is the plural form of Tharb, meaning
' Sheep-fat.' It is at present in ruins, and near it is the village
called by the same name." (Yak., i. 114 ; Mar., i. 21 ; A. F., 231.)
Al Atharib to Halab (Is., I. H., Yak., Muk.), i day ; to Antak-
iyyah (Is., I. H.), 2 days.
'ATH!R. " A place in Syria." (Yak., iii.6i7 ; Mar. ii. 238.)
'ATHLITH (CHATEAU PELERIN). "A fortress on the coast of
the Syrian Sea, called also Hisn al Ahmar (the Red Fort). It
was retaken (from the Crusaders) by Saladin in A.H. 583 (1187)."
(Yak., i. 156; iii. 616; Mar., i. 32; ii. 237.) Called Castellum
Peregrinorum and Petra Incisa in Crusading chronicles ; it was
the great stronghold of the Templars.
26-2
404 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
ARD 'A'iiKAH ('AxiKAH's LAND). " Outside the gate called
Bab al Jabiyah at Damascus. It is called after 'Atikah, daughter
of the Khalif Yazid ibn Mu'awiyah, who had a castle there. She
was the wife of the Khalif 'Abd al Malik ibn Marwan, and mother
of the Khalif Yazid ibn 'Abd al Malik. The Khalif 'Abd al Malik
died at this castle." (Yak., i. 208 ; Mar., i. 47.)
AL ATMIM. " A place in the Province of Hims." (Yb., 1 12.)
AL ATRUN. " A town near Ramlah in the Filastin Province."
(Yak., i. 310; Mar., i. 75.) This is doubtless the Castrum Boni
Latronis of the Crusades. Nasir-i-Khusrau (N. Kh., 22) also
mentions it.
AUDAN. "A large village standing under a hill between
Mar'ash and the Euphrates." (Yak., i. 399 ; Mar., i. 101.)
AL AULAJ. "A place in Syria." (Yak., i. 407 ; Mar., i. 104.)
Probably a variation in spelling of Aulas.
AULAS, OR AULASH (ELEUSA). " A fortress on the sea-shore.
The people here are extremely pious, and are stringently given to
the works of Allah. It is the last place on the Greek Sea belong-
ing to the Muslims, and near here the enemy are always en-
countered." (Is., 64; I. H., 163.)
"Hisn Aulash," says Idrisi, "lies on the sea, 12 miles from Tarsus,
of which it is the port. It is an impregnable fortress." (Id., 25, 27.)
" Aulas, or Aulash, is a fortress on the coast near Tarsus ; within
it is a fort called Hisn az Zuhad (the Anchorites' Fort)." (Yak., i.
407 ; Mar., i. 104.)
From Aulas by the sea to Tarsus (Is., I. H.), 2 days, or (Id.)
1 2 miles.
AL AUZA. " A village at the gates of Damascus, near the Bab
al Faradis. Al Auza' was originally the name of a tribe in Yaman,
and the village was called after these people, for they migrated
and settled here." (Yak., i. 403.)
'AWARTA. "A village, or small town, on the road from
Nabulus to Jerusalem. There are here the tombs of Yusha'
(Joshua) ibn NCm, and Mufaddal, the son of Aaron's uncle.
These lie in a cave, where also are buried seventy prophets."
(A. H., Oxf. MS., folio 34, where, however, the name of the village
is left blank. Copied by Yak., iii. 745 ; Mar., ii. 289.)
'All'IR. AZDUD, OK YAZDUD. 405
'Aw IK. " A village in Syria, or else the name of a spring lying
between Tadmur (Palmyra) and Halab." (Yak., i. 748 ; Mar.
ii. 290.)
AY As. Abu-1 Fida in the fourteenth century speaks of it as ' k a
large city of Armenia, on the sea-coast, possessing a fine port,
which is the harbour for those parts. In order to defend it, the
Franks have recently built a tower (burf) like a castle, close to
this, in the sea. From Ayas to Baghras is two days' march,
and from Ayas to Tall Hamdun is about one march. Since the
Muslims have retaken the coast towns, such as Tarabulus, 'Akka,
and the rest, from the Franks, these last more rarely come into
Syria, by reason of the harbours being in the hands of the True
Believers. The Franks now go rather to Ayas, because it is still
in the hands of the Christians, and thus it has become a celebrated
harbour, and a great emporium for the merchants both by sea and
by land." (A. F., 249.)
AL 'AzARIYYAH, OR AL 'AlZARIYYAH (BETHANY). "A village
near Jerusalem. There is here the tomb of Al 'Azar (Lazarus),
whom 'isa (Jesus) brought to life from being dead" (Yak., iii.
586, 752 ; Mar., ii. 226, 292.)
'AzAz, OR A'ZAZ. " A town with a castle and lands, standing
to the north, and a day's journey from Halab (Aleppo). It has a
good climate and sweet water. There are no scorpions here, or
other reptiles ; and earth from this place put on a scorpion kills
it." (Yak., iii. 667 ; Mar., ii. 255.)
" A'zaz," says Abu-1 Fida, " is the name of a celebrated fortress,
and also of its territory. It lies south and somewhat west of
Halab. It is extremely fertile, excellent and beautiful, and is one
of the pleasantest of places. Its soil is red. They grow much
cotton (Kutan) here, which is taken by ships to Sibtah (Ceuta),
and other cities of the West. The place is made green by the
masses of pistachio trees found here." (A. F., 231.)
AZDUD, OR YAZDUD (ASHDOD, AZOTUS). "The name of a
town." (Yak., iv. 1018 ; Mar., iii. 340.)
Azdud, or Yazdud, to Ar Ramlah (Is., I. H., Muk., Id.), i
march, or (I. Kh.) 12 miles; to Ghazzah (Muk., Is., I. H., Id.),
i march, or (I. Kh.) 20 miles ; to Ubnah (Is., I. H.), i march.
406 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
AL AZRAK (THE BLUE RIVER). "A watering-place on the
Hajj route before reaching Taima." (Yak., i. 232 ; Mar.,
i- 54-)
" Al Azrak," says Abu-1 Fida, " is the name of a fortress (Hisn)
built by Al Malik al Mu'adhdham at the edge of the desert
through which goes the road to the Hijjaz. To the right from
thence leads the road to Al 'Ula and Tabuk, while to the left is
that to Taima and Khaibar. Busra lies north of Al Azrak."
(A. F, 229.)
BA'ADHIN. U A village of Halab (Aleppo)." (Yak., i. 671;
Mar., i. 161.)
AL BAB (THE GATE), AND AL BUZA'AH. Ibn Jubair states in
his Diary that Buza'ah lies six hours distant from Manbij, and
half a night's journey from Dahwah. " It is smaller than a town,
and larger than a village. There is a good market here. Above
it is a strong castle. Water is in plenty, and gardens are all
around. Near the bed of the Wadi is a large village called Al
Bab that is, ' the Gate ' between Buza'ah and Aleppo. Its
population eight years ago were of the Ismailian sect." (I. J.,
$*')
" Al Bab," according to Yakut, " is a small town beside the
Wadi Butnan in the Halab district. It is called also Bab Buza'ah.
There are markets here, and they make quantities of cotton stuffs
called Kirbas, which are exported to Egypt and Damascus.
Buza'ah, or Biza'ah, for it is pronounced either way by the people
of Aleppo, is a town belonging, some say, to Halab in the Wadi
Butnan. It is a day's march from Halab, and the like from
Manbij. There is running water, also many springs, and a fine
market." (Yak., i. 437, 603 ; Mar., i. in, 150.)
" Al Bab and Buza'ah," writes Dimashki, " are two towns,
between them lying the Wadi Butnan. Along this runs a river
called As Sajur, which comes down from 'Ain Tab." (Dim.,
205.)
According to Abu-1 Fida, "Al Bab is a small town with a
market, a bath, and a Friday Mosque, also many pleasant gardens ;
while Buza'ah is a small domain belonging to Al Bab, outside of
which lies the (Mash-had) shrine and tomb of 'Akil ibn Abi Talib
HA niLLA. BAGHRAS. 407
(brother of the Khulif 'Ali). It lies a day's march north-east of
Halab." (A. F., 267.)
BARILLA " A village lying about a mile outside Halab ; which
at the present day is very populous." (Yak., i. 446 ; Mar., i. 113.)
BADAMA.--"A village belonging to Halab, in the neighbour-
hood of 'Azaz. It is mentioned in the Traditions (Hadif/i) in
connection with Adam." (Yak., i. 459; Mar., i. 116.)
BADHANDN (PODENDON). "A village of the Thughur (or
Frontier Fortresses), a day's march from 'Tarsus. Al Mamun died
there in the year 218 (833), and was buried at Tarsus, near the
Bab Badhandun, in the wall of that city." (Yak., i. 530 ; Mar.,
i- I35-)
AL BAIM'AH. " A spring near Hisma, and Hisma is a moun-
tain in Syria/' (Yak., i. 527 ; Mar., i. 134.)
AL BADIYYAH. " A spring two marches from Halab (Aleppo),
on the road to Salamiyyah." (Yak., i. 527 ; Mar., i. 134.)
BAGHRAS (PAGR^E). " A town where there is a Friday Mosque.
It lies on the road of the Frontier Fortresses, called Ath Thughur.
The almshouse here was instituted by Zubaidah (the wife of
Harun ar Rashid), and there is no other in all Syria that is as
large." (Is., 65 ; I. II., 163 ; copied by A. F., 259.)
Idrisi speaks of the place as " Hisn Baghras (the Fort of
Baghras), where there is a Friday Mosque, and a great population.
It lies on the road to the Frontier Fortresses." (Id , 27.)
" Baghraz, or Baghras," says Yakut, " stands on the flank of the
Jabal al Lukkam, 4 leagues from Antakiyyah, on the right of one
who goes from Aleppo to Antioch. This part of the country
overhangs the province round Tarsus. It was of old in the hands
of the Franks, but Saladin conquered it in 584(1188)." (Yak.,
i. 693 ; Mar., i. 163.)
" Baghras," says Abu-1 Fida, " in the Kinnasrin Province, pos-
sesses a high castle. There are springs and valleys round it, and
gardens. Murallabi says from Baghras to Antakiyyah is 12 miles,
and from Baghras to Iskandarunah is 12 miles also. It stands
on the mountain that overlooks the 'Amk of Harim. Harim lies
to the east of it, and 2 marches away. Baghras lies south, and
about a march from Darbassak." (A. F., 259.)
408 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
Ibn Batutah, who visited the spot in 1355, speaks of Baghras,
near Antioch, as a strong castle, with gardens and fields all
round it, lying on the road to Sis, in Little Armenia. (I. B.,
i. 163.)
Baghras to Antakiyyah (Is., I. H.) i day, or (Id.) 12 miles ; to
Iskandarunah (Id.) 9 miles.
BAHASITHA. " A large quarter lying to the north of Halab
(Aleppo). Its people are Sunnis." (Yak., i. 458; Mar., i.
US-)
BAHASNA (BEHESDIN). " A strong fortress near Mar'ash and
Sumaisat. It stands on the summit of a mountain. Rustak
Kaisum is of its dependencies. At the present day it belongs to
the Halab Province." (Yak., i. 770 ; Mar., i. 183.)
" Bahasna," says Abu-1 Fida, " is a strong, high-built castle, with
gardens, and a small river, also a market ; and excellent farms
belong to it. It has a Friday Mosque, and there are broad
and fertile lands all round. It lies about six days from Si was, and
is one of the most impregnable of castles. It lies about two days'
march north-west of 'Ain Tab." (A. F., 265.)
BAiRfrr (BERYTUS). " Bairut at the present day," writes
Ya'kubi, in 891, " is entirely peopled by Persians, brought here
and settled by the Khalif Mu'awiyah." (Yb., 1 14.)
. Istakhri and Ibn Haukal write : " Bairut, in the Damascus
Province, is not far from Tripoli. Al 'Auza'i* (the Traditionist)
lived here. Bairut has many palm-trees and sugar-canes and plen-
teous crops. The commerce of the sea comes here, and its roads
are never infested nor stopped. The town is well fortified, and
has fruitful lands round it. The walls are strong, and prices here
are moderate. The population are God-fearing and peaceful in
their ways, although they can also defend themselves well against
an enemy." (Is., 65 ; I. H., 116.)
Mukaddasi merely mentions Bairut as "a fortified city on the
sea." (Muk., 160.)
The Persian traveller, Nasir-i-Khusrau, visited Bairut in 1047,
and writes in his Diary :
" From Jubail we came on to Bairut. Here I saw an arch of
* For his life see Ibn Khallikan, De Slane's translation, ii. 84.
BAIRUT. 409
stone, so great, that the roadway went out through it ; and the
height of the arch I estimated at 50 ells.* The side walls of the
arch are built of white stone, and each block must be over
1,000 manns (or about i tons) in weight. The main build-
ing is of unburnt brick, built up a score of ells high. Along
the top of the same are set marble columns, each column 8f ells
tall, and so thick that with difficulty could two men with their
arms outstretched embrace the circumference. Above these
columns they have built arcades, both to right and to left, all of
stones exactly fitted, and constructed without mortar or cement.
The great centre arch rises up between, and towers above the
arcades by a height of 50 cubits. The blocks of stone that are
used in the construction of these arches, according to my estimate,
were each 8 cubits high, and 4 cubits across, and by conjecture
each must weigh some 7,000 manns (or about 10 tons). Every
one of these stones is beautifully fashioned and sculptured after a
manner that is rarely accomplished, even in (soft) wood. Except,
this arch no other (ancient) building remains. I inquired in the
neighbourhood what might have been the purpose thereof; to
which the people answered that, as they had heard tell, this was
the gate of Pharaoh's garden ; also that it was extremely ancient.
All the plain around this spot is covered with marble columns,
with their capitals and shafts. These were all of marble, and
chiselled, round, square, hexagonal, or octagonal ; and all in such
extremely hard stone, that an iron tool can make no impression
thereon. Now, in all the country round there is apparently no
mountain or quarry from which this stone can have been brought ;
and, again, there is another kind of stone that has an appearance
of being artificial,* and, like the first stone, this, too, is not work-
able with iron. In various parts of Syria there may be seen some
five hundred thousand columns, or capitals and shafts of columns,
* This may have been the remains of one of the baths or theatres with
which Herod Agrippa embellished Uerytus ; or, possibly, it is the ruins of the
celebrated college.
t The British Museum MS. may read " twenty ells," but this is doubtless
a clerical error.
t Referring, doubtless, to basalt or granite, of which ancient columns are
frequently found.
4io PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
of which no one knows either the maker, nor can say for what
purpose they were first hewn, or whence they were brought."
(N. Kh, 9.)
"Bairut," as Idrisi reports, ''lies on the shore of the sea. It is
protected by great and broad stone walls. In the neighbourhood,
and belonging to it, is an iron mine, of very good metal, and easy
to work. They extract from this, ore in quantity, and send it to
all parts of Syria. Bairut also has a grove of Snobur-pine ; these
lie on its southern side, and extend as far as the Lebanon moun-
tains. This grove may be estimated at some 12 miles square.
The people of Bairut drink from well-water." (Id., 16.)
" Bairut," says Yakut, " lies 3 leagues from Sidon, and belongs
to the Damascus Province. It remained in the hands of the
Muslims in best of condition. Baghdawin (King Baldwin) the
Frank, who conquered Jerusalem came against it and laid siege
to it, taking the city by storm on the Friday, 2ist of the month
Shawwal, 503 (mo). It remained in the hands of the Christians
until Saladin retrieved it from them in the year 583 (1187).
(Yak., i. 785 ; Mar., i. 188.)
Abu-1 Fida in the fourteenth century says :
" Bairut lies on the coast of Damascus. It possesses two
towers (burj\ and has gardens, and a river. The lands round
are very fertile. Al 'Auza'i, the Jurisconsult, lived here. It is the
port of Damascus. From Bairut to Ba'albakk, over the 'Akabah
al Mughithah (the Pass of Succour),, is 36 miles. Between the
two lies the town of Arjamush, 24 miles from Bairut. Bairut is a
beautiful town. Water is brought to it by an underground
channel." (A. F., 247.)
Ibn Batutah passed through Bairut in 1355. He speaks of it
as " a small town with fine buildings, excellent bazaars and a
Mosque. They export fruit and iron thence to Egypt." (I. B.,
i- I33-)
Bairut to Damascus (Is., I. H., Muk., Id.), 2 days; (Yak.), 3
days ; to Tarabulus (Is., I. H., Muk.), i day ; to Saida (Muk ), i
march; to Hisn an Na'imah (Id.), 24 miles; to Hisn al Maz-
dasiyyah, or Al Muradisiyyah (Id.), 8 miles.
BAISAN (BETHSHEAN, SCYTHOPOLIS). "Baisan," says Mukad-
B A IS AN. 411
dasi, " lies on the Jordan. It abounds in palm-trees, and from
this place comes all the rice consumed in the provinces of the
Jordan and of Palestine. Water is here abundant, and easily
obtained ; but for drinking purposes its water is deemed
heavy of digestion. The Mosque stands in the market place,
and many men of piety make their home in this town." (Mtik.,
162.)
" Baisan," writes Idrisi, " is but a small place, but it has many
palms. And there grows here the Saman (reed) of which they
make the Samani mats. This reed is not found anywhere else
except here, and nowhere else in Syria is there any reed to equal
it" (Id, 12.)
Yakut writes of Baisan, " that it is a town of the Jordan
Province in the Ghaur. They call it Lisan al Ard> the Tongue of
the Earth. It lies between the Hauran and the Filastin Provinces.
Near it is the 'Ain al Fulus (the Spring of the copper coin, called
Fals, Obolus), which is of paradise, though its waters are a little
salt. This spring is mentioned in the Hadith (or Traditions of the
Prophet). Baisan suffers from the pest, and is very hot. The
inhabitants are brown-skinned and woolly-haired by reason of the
heat of its climate. Baisan was celebrated for the number of its
palms, but I, Yakut, who have been there many times (thirteenth
century), never saw more than two palm-trees here, and these of
the kind that give dates one year and no more. This they say is
a sign of the coming of the Antichrist Ad Dajjal." (Yak., i. 788 ;
Mar., i. 189.) It is noteworthy that there are no palm-trees seen
in Baisan at the present day, neither is the rice, for which it was
formerly celebrated, any longer cultivated here.
" Baisan," says Abu-1 Fida, " in the Jordan Province is a small
town, without walls, but possessing gardens, and streams, and
springs. It lies on the west of the Ghaur, and is very fertile.
Among its other streams is a small one coming from a spring
which runs through the town. Baisan lies 18 miles from
Tabariyyah, and is to the south of it.' (A. F., 243.)
Baisan to Tabariyyah (Is., I.H.), short 2 marches, or days, or
(Id.) part of day, or (Muk.) i march ; to Ta'asir (Muk.), 2 stages ;
to Nabulus (Muk.), i march.
412 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
BAIT AL ABAR (THE HOUSE OF WELLS). " A village and
district of the Ghautah of Damascus ; there are many other
villages in its neighbourhood." (Yak., i. 775 ; Mar., i. 185.)
BAIT AL AHZAN (THE HOUSE OF LAMENTATIONS). "A town
being between Damascus and the coast. They say it is the place
where Jacob passed the days of his lamentation when he was
separated from Joseph. It was rebuilt by the Franks, and they
made of it a great fortress. Saladin took it in 575 (1179) and
destroyed it." (Yak., i. 775 ; Mar., i. 185.)
BAIT ARANIS. " One of the villages of the Ghautah of
Damascus. Near it is the tomb of Abu Marthad Dithar ibn al
Husain, one of the Companions of the Prophet." (Yak., i. 775 ;
Mar., i. 185.)
BAIT AL BALAT. " A village in the Ghautah (district round)
Damascus." (Yak., i. 708, 776; Mar., i. 168, 185.)
BAIT JANN. " A village between Darayyah and Baniyas, lying
among the hills. We travelled," says Ibn Jubair, "thence to
Baniyas, and half way on the road thither we passed an oak-tree
(Baliif] of great size of trunk, with spreading branches, which they
informed us was called the Tree of the Balance (Shajarat al
Maizan}. When we inquired the reason, we were told this oak
marked the limit between safety and danger on this road. This
is by reason of the brigandage of the Franks ; for on the one side
they seize on everybody they find, while on the other travellers
are safe from them.'' (I. J., 303.)
BAIT JIBRIN, OR BAIT JIBRIL (THE HOUSE OF GABRIEL ; BETO-
GABRA, ELEUTHEROPOLIS). " An ancient city of Palestine."
(Yb., 117.)
" Bait Jibril," said Mukaddasi, " is a city partly in the hill
country, partly in the plain. Its territory has the name of Ad
Darum (the ancient Darorna and the modern Dairan), and there
are here marble quarries. The district sends its produce to the
capital (Ar Ramlah). It is the emporium for the neighbouring
country, and a land of riches and plenty, possessing fine domains.
The population, however, is now on the decrease, and impotence
has possession of many of its men." (Muk., 174.)
"Bait Jibrin, or Jibril," says Yakut, "lies between Jerusalem
BAIT KUFA.BAIT LIHYA. 413
and 'Askalan, or Ghazzah, being 2 marches from Jerusalem, and
less from Ghax/ah. There was here a fortified castle which
Saladin destroyed when he took it from the Franks. Between
Bait Jibrin and 'Askalan is a valley called Wadi an Naml (the
Valley of the Ant), where Solomon spoke with these insects (see
above, p. 402)." (Yak., i. 776; Mar., i. 185.)
" At the time of the first conquest by the Arabs, under 'Amr
ibn al 'As, that chief had at Bait Jibrin a domain, called 'Ajlan,
after one of his freedmen." (Yak., ii. 19.)
Bait Jibril to Ar Ramlah (Muk.), i march ; to Jerusalem
(Muk.), i march; to Ghaxzah (Muk.), i march.
BAIT KftFA. "A village of Damascus.'' (Yak., i. 779 ; Mar., i.
186.)
BAIT LAHA. " A fortress high up on the Jabal Lailun, between
Antakiyyah and Halab (Aleppo). There was stationed here a
warder who watched, in the beginning of the day, the road
towards Antioch, and at the end of it towards Aleppo." (Yak., i.
779; Mar., i. 187.)
BAIT LIHYA. " Bait Lihya," says 'Ali of Herat, " or more
correctly Bait Alihah (the House of Gods), is a village of Damas-
cus, where Abraham broke to pieces the idols of his father."*
(A. H., Oxf. MS., folio 1 80.)
" Bait Lahiyyah, or Lihya," Ibn Jubair writes in his Diary,
" lies east of Damascus, on the right of the road to Maulid
Ibrahim (the Birth-place of Abraham). It is more properly Bait
al Alihah, the ' House of Idols.' In ancient times there was a
church here, which is now a mosque. It was of old the temple
where the father of Abraham made his idols and kept them. But
Abraham came and broke them to pieces. The temple is now the
mosque of the inhabitants, and its roof is beautifully ornamented
with mosaic of coloured marbles." (I. J., 279.)
Yakut gives the following account of the Idol Temple at Bait
Lihya, which he says is a celebrated village in the Ghautah, out-
side the gates of Damascus : " It is more properly Bait Alihah
(the Idol House). They say that Azar, the father of Abraham,
* For the Muslim tradition of Abraham and his breaking of his father's
idols, see G. Weil, fiibiische Legetidcn der Miuelnidnncr, p. 70.
4 i4 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
' the Friend,' had carved idols, and had set them before Abraham
that he should pay homage to them. But Abraham took a stone
and broke them in pieces ; and this stone is at the present day
shown at Damascus (see p. 256), and from it is called the Darb a I
Hajar, ' Street of the Stone,' in that city. Now I (Yakut) say, the
truth is that Abraham was born at Babil (Babylon), and it was
there that Azar made his idols. Also in the Thaurah (Pentateuch)
it is written that Azar died in Harran, for he left 'Irak (Babylonia)
and went to Harran, and remained there till he died, and it is
not stated that he ever came to Syria ; but Allah knows best the
truth of all this." (Yak., i. 780 ; also iv. 371, where the name is
given under Lihya; Mar., i. 187, iii. 231.)
"Bait Ilahiyyah," so the name is spelt by Ibn Batutah, "is a
village lying to the east of Damascus. There was here a church,
where Azar (father of Abraham) used to carve idols. These
Abraham broke to pieces. There is now a fine Jami' Mosque
here, beautifully ornamented with mosaics and coloured marbles,
very wonderful to see." (I. B., i. 237.)
Bait Lihya is not marked on the map. Ibn Batutah states that
the village lies to the east of Damascus, and all authorities
mention it as a well-known place in the Ghutah, so well known, in
fact, that they unfortunately omit to indicate its exact position.
No mention of the place is to be found in the works of Burton,
Porter, and other travellers. Robinson mentions a village called
Beit Lehya (Researches, vol. iii., 1852, notes to pp. 426, 428), lying
west of Rasheyah, which in Badeker (Syria, p. 452) is called Bet
Laya. But this, if Ibn Batutah's indication of the position east of
Damascus for Bait Lihya is to be credited, can hardly be the
same place, for Rasheyah lies west of the Ghutah, under the spurs
of Mount Hermon.
BAIT LIHYA (2) "Near Ghazzah, of the like name to the
above. It is a village with many fruit-trees." (Mar. in Yak., v. 15.)
BAIT MAMA. " One of the villages of Nabulus in the Filastin
Province. Its people were Samaritans, and the poll-tax on every
man of them was 10 Dinars ($)', but they complained of it to
the (Khalif) Al Mutawakkil, and he reduced it to 3 Dinars."
(Yak., i. 781 ; Mar., i. 187.)
HA IT M.IMJX. H.lKl .1 ITS. 415
BAIT MAMIN. "A village of Ar Ramlah." (Yak., i. 781;
Mar., i. 187.)
P. AIT NUBA. "A small town in the neighbourhood of Filastin
(Ar Kamluh)." (Yak., i. 781 ; Mar., i. 187.) This village, lying
half-way between Jerusalem and Ramlah, has been identified with
the Nob of i Samuel xxi. i.
BAIT RAMAH, OR BAIT AR RAM.--" A celebrated village lying
between the Balka Province and the Ghaur (of the Jordan)."
(Yak., i. 777 ; Mar., i. 186.)
Bait Ar Ram to Ariha (Jericho) (NTuk.), 2 stages; to 'Amman
(Muk.), i march.
BAIT RAs (i). " A village of Jerusalem, or, it is said, belonging
to the Jordan Province. There are quantities of vines here, from
which the celebrated wine is made." (Yak., i. 776 ; Mar., i. 186.)
BAIT RAs (2). "A village near Halab (Aleppo). Here also
vines are in plenty, and wine is called from the name of this place."
(Idem.)
BAIT SABA. " An Iklim (or district) of Bait al Abar, near
Jarmanis (of Damascus)." (Yak., i. 778; Mar., i. 186.)
BAIT SAR'A. Mentioned by Mukaddasi as lying i march distant
from Damascus. (Muk., 190.)
BAIT SAW A. "A village of Damascus." (Yak., i. 778; Mar.,
i. 1 86.)
BAJJ HAURAN. "One of the districts of Damascus; also the
name of a village at the gate of Damascus, in (the district of)
Iklim Bands." (Yak., i. 496; Mar., i. 127.)
BAK'A AL 'Ais, AND BAK'A RABI'AH. "Two Kurahs (districts)
of Manbij. They lie near the Nahr (river) as Sajur." (Yak.,
i. 701 ; Mar., i. 166.)
BAKARHA. " A village belonging to Halab (Aleppo)." (Mar.
in Yak., v. 14.)
BAKIDIN. Mentioned in the Diary of Ibn Jubair as lying south
of Kinnasrin. The caravan rested at the Khan at Turkman.
" All the Khans on the road between Halab and Hamah," says
Ibn Jubair, " are like fortified castles with iron gates, and very
strongly built." (I. J., 256.)
BAKTATIS. " A village of Hims." (Yak., i. 700; Mar., i. 165.)
4 i6 PALESTINE UNDER THE MOSLEMS.
BALADAH. " A town on the coast of Syria, near Jabalah. After
its conquest by 'Ubadah ibn as Samit the place fell to ruin, and
the inhabitants were carried to other places. The Khalif
Mu'awiyah used the materials of the old city for rebuilding Jabalah.
It w r as anciently a fortress of the Greeks, as mentioned by Bila-
dhuri." (Yak., i. 718; Mar., i. 170.)
BALAS. "A town lying 10 miles from Damascus." (Yak.,
i. 708 ; Mar., i. 168.)
BAL'AS. "One of the districts of Hims." (Yak., i. 712 ; Mar.,
i. 171.)
AL BALAT. "An ancient town lying between Mar'ash and
Antakiyyah. It is now in ruins. The district is watered by the
Nahr al Aswad, and belongs to Halab. Al Balat is the chief
town of the Kurah of Al Huwwar." (Yak., i. 709 ; Mar.,
i. 168.)
BALATAH. " A village of the Nabulus District in FilasHn. The
Jews say that it was here that Nimrud (Nimrod) ibn Kan'an
threw Abraham into the fire ; the learned, however, say this took
place at Babil (Babylon), in 'Irak and Allah alone knows the
truth. There is here the spring called 'Ain al Khidr. Yusuf
(Joseph) as Sadik peace be on him ! was buried here, and his
tomb is well known, lying under the tree." (Yak., i. 710 ; Mar.,
i. 168.)
BALATUNUS, OR BALATUNUSH (MANSIO PLATANUS OF THE
ITINERARIES). "An impregnable fortress on the Syrian coast,
opposite Al Ladhikiyyah, in the Halab Province." (Yak., i. 710 ;
Mar., i. 168.)
" Hisn Balatunus," writes Dimashki in 1300, "is a perfectly
impregnable fortress. It has eleven